Introduction
Relevance of the topic Children with speech impairments are children who have deviations in speech development with normal hearing and intact intelligence. Speech disorders are diverse; they can manifest themselves in impaired pronunciation, grammatical structure of speech, poor vocabulary, as well as impaired tempo and fluency of speech.
According to the severity, speech disorders can be divided into those that are not an obstacle to learning in a public school, and severe disorders that require special training.
However, in mass children's institutions, children with speech disorders also need special help. Many kindergartens have speech therapy groups, where children are assisted by a speech therapist and teachers with special education. In addition to speech correction, children are involved in the development of memory, attention, thinking, gross and fine motor skills, and are taught literacy and mathematics.
School-age children receive assistance at speech therapy centers at secondary schools. Children with pronunciation deficiencies, writing impairments caused by speech underdevelopment, and children who stutter are sent to speech centers. Correctional work is carried out in parallel with school classes and greatly contributes to overcoming school failure. The success of speech therapy classes at school largely depends on how much the family helps to consolidate the acquired skills of correct speech.
With severe speech impairments, it is impossible to educate children in mass children's institutions, so there are special kindergartens and schools for children with severe speech impairments.
The main sign of severe speech impairment is a pronounced limitation of the means of verbal communication with normal hearing and intact intelligence. Children suffering from such disorders have a poor speech reserve, some do not speak at all. Communication with others in this case is very limited. Despite the fact that most of these children are able to understand speech addressed to them, they themselves are deprived of the opportunity to verbally communicate with others. This leads to a difficult situation for children in the group: they are completely or partially deprived of the opportunity to participate in games with peers and in social activities. The developmental influence of communication is minimal in such conditions. Therefore, despite sufficient opportunities for mental development; In such children, secondary mental retardation occurs, which sometimes gives rise to the misconception that they are intellectually inferior. This impression is aggravated by the lag in mastering literacy and understanding arithmetic problems.
So, speech disorders lead to numerous problems for the child in the personal sphere, forming complexes in him, deforming his personality. That is why it is important to promptly identify and eliminate existing speech defects and disorders as much as possible for each individual situation. And here, special attention should be paid to the psychological background of the child’s existence, for which it is important to get a clear idea of the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders. This is important for the child, the success of his personal development, studies, and socio-psychological comfort. But the question of the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders in the specialized literature is considered extremely poorly and often in relation to a specific speech pathology, without emphasizing the general problems. Thus, the relevance of this research topic arises from the contradiction between the insufficient information coverage of the problem and its high practical significance in the work of speech therapists, preschool teachers, school psychologists, teachers, and all those who work with children who have one form or another of speech disorders.
The object of the study is children with speech disorders.
The subject of the study is the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders.
Hypothesis: speech disorders determine the characterological and behavioral specificity of the child’s personality.
The purpose of the work is to analyze the vision of the problem of development of children with speech disorders in modern psychological and pedagogical literature.
Job objectives:
- reveal an understanding of speech, its role, meaning and functions in scientific literature,
- define speech disorders,
- consider the issue of classification of speech disorders
- give psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders.
Research methods. In accordance with the logic of the study, to solve the problems, a theoretical and methodological analysis of psychological, pedagogical, philosophical, economic, sociological and special literature on the problem under study was used, as well as the study of mass and innovative pedagogical activities.
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In recent decades, the number of children with mental retardation has increased significantly. Currently, they make up more than 20% of the child population. This is part of the group of children that in the world psychological and medical literature is called “children with minimal brain dysfunction” (minimalbraindysfunction), and in pedagogical literature - children with learning disabilities (educationally disabled) or slow learners [1] .
The problem of mental development delay (MDD) is relevant not only for psychology, defectology and pedagogy, but also for psychiatry, child neurology and pediatrics. This diagnosis is established for children up to primary school age; if signs of underdevelopment of mental functions persist at an older age, this indicates mental retardation. To date, there is no clear diagnostic framework for mental retardation, nor a consensus on the age up to which this diagnosis is legitimate. Errors in diagnosing mental retardation lead to the choice of an inadequate educational program and the occurrence of school maladaptation, against the background of which deviant behavior can subsequently develop [2, 3].
A comprehensive study of mental retardation as a specific deviation of child development began in Russian defectology in the 60s of the last century. The urgent need to develop a theory of the development of children with mental retardation in comparison with children with other developmental disabilities, as well as with fully developing children, was determined mainly by the needs of pedagogical practice.
The first generalizations of clinical data about children with mental retardation and general recommendations for organizing correctional work with them to help the teacher were given by T.A. Vlasova and M.S. Pevzner [4].
Mental retardation, despite the variety of its manifestations, is characterized by a number of signs that make it possible to limit it from pedagogical neglect and mental retardation. Thus, children with mental retardation do not have disorders of individual analyzers and major disorders of brain structures, but are distinguished by the immaturity of complex forms of behavior and purposeful activity against the background of rapid exhaustion, fatigue, and impaired performance [5, 6].
According to N.Yu. Maksimova and E.L. Milyutina [7], mental retardation is a slowdown in the rate of development of the child’s psyche, which is expressed in the insufficiency of the general stock of knowledge, immaturity of thinking, predominance of gaming interests, and rapid satiety in intellectual activity.
V.M. Astapov [8], N.P. Wiseman [9], note that mental retardation is not a clinical form of the disease. This is dysontogenic (abnormal) development. It is characterized by impaired cognitive activity and a disorder of emotional development (infantilism). The essence of mental retardation is as follows: the maturation of the body and the development of mental processes (thinking, memory, attention, perception, speech), the emotional-volitional sphere of the personality occurs unevenly and at a slow pace, lagging behind the norm by 1.5 - 2 years [10].
HELL. Goneev [11] uses the following definition: “mental retardation is a violation of the normal pace of mental development, as a result of which a child who has reached school age continues to remain in the circle of preschool, play interests.”
The issues of etiology and classification of mental retardation were dealt with by M.S. Pevzner [12], T.A. Vlasova, K.S. Lebedinskaya [13]. For practitioners, the most significant classification according to the etiological principle of K.S. Lebedinskaya [14], who identifies four forms of mental retardation: constitutional, somatogenic, psychogenic and cerebral-organic. Each of these types of mental retardation has its own clinical and psychological structure.
1. ZPR of constitutional origin. We are talking about the so-called harmonious infantilism (uncomplicated mental and psychophysical infantilism, according to the classification of M.S. Pevzner, T.A. Vlasova), in which the emotional-volitional sphere is, as it were, at an earlier stage of development, largely reminiscent of the normal structure of the emotional storage of younger children. Characterized by the predominance of emotional motivation for behavior, heightened background mood, spontaneity and brightness of emotions with their superficiality and instability, easy suggestibility.
Harmonic infantilism is, as it were, a nuclear form of mental infantilism, in which the traits of emotional-volitional immaturity appear in their purest form and are often combined with an infantile body type.
Such a harmonious psychophysical appearance, the frequency of familial cases, and the non-pathological nature of mental characteristics suggest a predominantly congenital constitutional etiology of this type of infantilism [15, 16]. However, often the origin of harmonious infantilism can be associated with mild metabolic and trophic disorders, either intrauterine or acquired during the first years of life. In this regard, the data of G.P. are of interest. Bertyn (1970) about the relative frequency of harmonic infantilism in twins and the assumption of the pathogenetic role of hypotrophic phenomena associated with the multiple pregnancy factor [17].
2. ZPR of somatogenic origin. This type of developmental anomaly is caused by long-term somatic failure of various origins: chronic infections and allergic conditions, congenital and acquired malformations of the somatic sphere, primarily the heart [18].
In slowing down the rate of mental development of these children, a significant role is played by persistent asthenia, which reduces not only general but also mental tone. Often there is also a delay in emotional development - somatogenic infantilism, caused by a number of neurotic layers - uncertainty, fearfulness, capriciousness associated with a feeling of physical inferiority, and sometimes induced by the regime of certain restrictions and prohibitions in which a somatically weakened or sick child is located.
3. Mental retardation of psychogenic origin. This type of mental retardation is associated with unfavorable upbringing conditions that prevent the correct formation of the child’s personality.
The social genesis of this type of anomaly does not exclude its pathological nature. As is known, unfavorable environmental conditions that arise early, have a long-term effect and have a traumatic effect on the child’s psyche can lead to persistent changes in his neuropsychic sphere, disruption first of autonomic functions, and then of mental, primarily emotional, development. In such cases we are talking about pathological (abnormal) personality development. This type of mental retardation should be distinguished from the phenomena of pedagogical neglect, which do not represent a pathological phenomenon, but are limited by a deficit of knowledge and skills due to a lack of intellectual information.
Mental retardation of psychogenic origin is observed, first of all, with abnormal personality development of the type of mental instability [16, 18], most often caused by the phenomenon of hypoguardianship - conditions of neglect, under which the child does not develop a sense of duty and responsibility, as well as forms of behavior associated with active inhibition of affect. The development of cognitive activity, intellectual interests and attitudes is not stimulated. Therefore, the features of the emotional-volitional sphere in the form of affective lability, impulsiveness, and suggestibility in these children are often combined with an insufficient level of knowledge and ideas necessary for mastering school subjects.
The variant of abnormal development of the “Family Idol” type is, on the contrary, due to overprotection - incorrect, pampering upbringing, in which the child is not instilled with the traits of independence, initiative, and responsibility. This psychogenic infantilism, along with a low capacity for volitional effort, is characterized by features of egocentrism, dislike of work, and an attitude toward constant help and guardianship.
A variant of pathological personality development of the neurotic type is more often observed in children in whose families there is rudeness, cruelty, despotism, and aggression towards the child and other family members. In such an environment, a timid, fearful personality is formed, whose emotional immaturity is manifested in insufficient independence, indecisiveness, little activity and initiative. Unfavorable upbringing conditions lead to delayed development and cognitive activity.
4. ZPR of cerebral-organic origin. This type of developmental disorder occupies the main place in this polymorphic developmental anomaly. It occurs more often than other described types, and often has greater persistence and severity of disturbances both in the emotional-volitional sphere and in cognitive activity [14].
A study of the anamnesis of these children in most cases shows the presence of mild organic insufficiency of the nervous system, more often of a residual nature: pathology of pregnancy (severe toxicosis, infections, intoxication and trauma, incompatibility of the blood of mother and fetus according to Rh, ABO and other factors), prematurity, asphyxia and trauma during childbirth, postnatal neuroinfections, toxic-dystrophic diseases of the first years of life.
According to J. Daulenskienė (1973), pathologies of pregnancy, childbirth, and diseases of the first year of life account for 67.3% of all causes potentially leading to the formation of mental retardation of cerebral-organic origin. According to the assumption of G. Grossman and W. Schmitz, 70% falls on intrauterine pathology and only 30% on early postnatal pathology. L. Tarnopol notes infectious etiology in 39% of cases, consequences of birth and postnatal injuries - in 33% [14].
Anamnestic data also indicate a frequent slowdown in the change of age-related phases of development: a delay in the formation of static functions, walking, speech, neatness skills, and stages of play activity [19, 20].
In the somatic state, along with frequent signs of delayed physical development (underdevelopment of growth, muscles, lack of muscle and vascular tone), general malnutrition is often observed, which does not allow us to exclude the pathogenetic role of disturbances in the autonomic regulation of trophic and immunological functions [21]; Various types of body dysplasticity may also be observed.
In the neurological condition, hydrocephalic and sometimes hypertensive stigmas, erased hemisyndrome, disorders of cranial innervation, pyramidal signs, and phenomena of vegetative-vascular dystonia are often encountered [22].
Cerebral-organic insufficiency, first of all, leaves a typical imprint on the structure of the mental retardation itself - both on the characteristics of emotional-volitional immaturity, and on the nature of cognitive impairment.
Emotional-volitional immaturity is represented by organic infantilism [16, 23]. With this infantilism, children lack the liveliness and brightness of emotions typical of a healthy child. Sick children are characterized by weak interest in evaluation and a low level of aspirations. Gaming activity is characterized by a lack of imagination and creativity, a certain monotony and monotony, and a predominance of the component of motor disinhibition.
Depending on the prevailing emotional background, two main types of organic infantilism can be distinguished:
1. unstable – with psychomotor disinhibition, a euphoric tint of mood and impulsiveness, imitating childish cheerfulness and spontaneity;
2. inhibited – with a predominance of low mood, indecision, lack of initiative, and often timidity.
In the formation of mental retardation of cerebral-organic origin, a significant role is played by disorders of cognitive activity caused by insufficient memory, attention, inertia of mental processes, their slowness, reduced switchability, as well as deficits of individual cortical functions. Psychological and pedagogical research conducted for a number of years at the Research Institute of Defectology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR, states in these children the instability of attention, insufficient development of phonemic hearing, visual and tactile perception, optical-spatial synthesis, motor and sensory aspects of speech, long-term and short-term memory, visual -motor coordination, automation of movements and actions. Poor orientation in “right-left”, phenomena of mirroring in writing, and difficulties in differentiating similar graphemes are often found.
In this case, a certain partiality and mosaic pattern of violations of individual cortical functions is noted. Obviously, in this regard, some of the children experience primary difficulties in mastering reading, others in writing, others in counting, fourths show the greatest lack of motor coordination, fifths in memory, etc.
In children with mental retardation of encephalo-organic origin, as a rule, a number of encephalopathic disorders are observed.
Cerebrasthenic phenomena are the most common and manifest themselves in a number of phenomena reflecting neurodynamic disorders, primarily increased fatigue of the central nervous system. These include disturbances in intellectual performance with a decline in the ability to remember and concentrate as fatigue increases, an increase in mental slowness, emotional and motor disorders, and the phenomenon of vegetative dystonia.
Neurosis-like phenomena, pathogenetically associated with cerebrasthenic soil, are represented by anxiety, timidity, a tendency to fear the dark, loneliness; tic hyperkinesis - obsessive movements, neurosis-like stuttering, neurosis-like enuresis.
Psychomotor excitability syndrome, more often observed in boys, includes affective and general motor disinhibition, distractibility, and fussiness.
Affective disorders manifest themselves in unmotivated mood swings of the cerebral-organic register: dysphoric state - low mood with anger, distrust, and a tendency to aggressive discharges; euphoric state - elevated mood with elements of foolishness, importunity, aimless fussiness [24].
Psychopathic-like disorders are a combination of motor disinhibition, affective instability, decreased interest in intellectual activity with a negative attitude towards learning.
Apathetic-adynamic disorders include decreased initiative and motivation in intellectual activity, severe emotional lethargy and motor retardation [25, 26].
In the development of more persistent cerebral-organic forms of mental retardation, both more severe neurodynamic disorders play a role - inertia of mental processes, their slowness, insufficient switchability, and more pronounced encephalopathic disorders (psychopathic, epileptiform, apathetic-adynamic disorders).
These are the clinical features of mental retardation of cerebral-organic origin. Depending on the predominance in the clinical picture of the phenomena of either emotional-volitional immaturity or impaired cognitive activity, mental retardation of cerebral origin can be divided into two main options: 1) organic infantilism; 2) mental retardation with a predominance of functional impairments of cognitive activity [20].
Thus, researchers note that children with mental retardation of cerebral-organic origin, in which the most persistent disturbances in the rate of mental maturation are complicated by a number of neurodynamic and encephalopathic disorders, especially need special learning conditions. Children with mental retardation of constitutional and somatogenic origin can be educated in a general education school with special assistance from teachers, a pediatrician, parents, a psychologist, and a speech therapist [27].
N.Yu. Maksimova, E.L. Milyutin [7] distinguish the following types of mental development delays: harmonic psychophysical infantilism, organic infantilism, cerebral-organic delay, somatic delay, pedagogical and macrosocial neglect.
Harmonic psychophysical infantilism is a delay in mental development of constitutional origin. Often infantilism occurs in other family members, without reaching a pathological level. In some cases, the delay affects not only the psyche, but also the physical development of the child. With harmonious psychophysical infantilism, the child is somewhat behind in height and weight from his peers, and is distinguished by the vivacity of his motor skills and emotions. The range of interests is limited to gaming activities. The game is developed, role-playing, in which the child can show a lot of restraint and creativity. At the same time, educational and cognitive activity is unattractive for these children; when completing educational tasks, they quickly become satiated. Emotions and motivation correspond to a younger age. Self-esteem is poorly differentiated. At the same time, there are no significant disturbances in mental processes. The delay mainly affects the emotional-volitional sphere of the individual, leading to insufficient voluntary regulation of activity, thinking, memorization, and concentration. When provided with organizational assistance and constant encouragement, subjects show a sufficient level of achievement in the intellectual sphere. In the future, it is possible to constantly smooth out the differences between the norm and children with infantilism, transferring them to a regular school from a school for children with mental retardation.
Organic infantilism arises on the basis of organic lesions (traumas, infections) suffered in early childhood. At the same time, signs of immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere are noted: the inability to voluntarily concentrate on intellectual activity, the predominance of gaming motivation [28].
However, children of this type also exhibit features of organic damage to the central nervous system: inertia of mental processes, clumsiness of motor skills. The examination reveals a high focus on the adult’s reaction and a desire to earn the experimenter’s praise. At the same time, the child has little interest in the content of the task and cannot independently assess the success of his activities. In children with organic infantilism, the following features of the emotional-volitional sphere are expressed: with a predominance of an elevated background mood, restlessness and motor disinhibition are noted. The child is not capable of volitional effort and self-organization during activities. Self-esteem is usually high, the attitude towards learning is negative (“boring”, “difficult”, “it’s better to play”). Parents and teachers describe such children as disinhibited and undisciplined. When examining the intelligence of such children, the lower limit of the age norm is revealed. Children with predominant traits of inhibition and anxiety easily develop school anxiety. Children have a hard time experiencing their failures in school, although their gaming interests predominate. During lessons, these children obey the requirements of discipline, but are afraid to answer at the blackboard, in front of the class. Inertia and the slow pace of sensorimotorism lead to the fact that the child is not able to understand and complete the task at the same time as other students. Awareness of one's inability further inhibits the child's personal development. The reason for turning to a psychologist or psychiatrist is often poor academic performance. Children with organic infantilism can experience significant improvements in behavior and academic performance with regular treatment and rehabilitation.
In addition to consultation with a psychiatrist and treatment, for children of this type, classes to develop memory, voluntary attention, and abstract thinking, conducted in a playful way, are recommended. This allows us to reduce the consequences of organic infantilism. In adolescence, such children may develop social adaptation disorders and run away from home and school. Therefore, mandatory dynamic observation of these children by a psychologist is necessary throughout their entire schooling.
Cerebral-organic mental retardation affects cognitive activity to a greater extent, rather than the emotional-volitional sphere. A pathopsychological examination reveals motor disinhibition and insufficient understanding of instructions. Performance is reduced, the exhaustion of mental processes is expressed according to the hyposthenic or hypersthenic type.
The volume and voluntary concentration of attention are insufficient, and the ability to distribute attention sharply suffers. Memory is also poorly developed, mainly memorizing verbal material suffers. The pace of sensorimotor activity is slow, precise coordination of movements is impaired.
There is a delay in speech development and poor vocabulary. Children often have pronunciation defects and insufficient sound-letter analysis and synthesis. Speech, to a lesser extent than normal, performs the function of regulating activity.
With cerebral-organic mental retardation, there are also manifestations of focal brain lesions: disturbances in visual and auditory perception, stereotypes and repetitions during activities, difficulties in spatial orientation.
When studying children in this group, the general level of intelligence is intermediate between normal and mental retardation. Specificity of thinking is noted. However, unlike patients with debility, there is an uneven level of achievement. It is important that when assistance is provided, the child’s achievements improve, and it is possible to assimilate and transfer new experiences with repeated learning attempts.
The emotional sphere of personality in such children also suffers. Manifestations of rudeness, impulsiveness, and disinhibition of drives are possible. Volitional regulation of activity is extremely underdeveloped.
Self-esteem and criticism of the results of activities are difficult for children in this group. The specificity of gaming activity is that the child has a stereotypical game, and there are no games with rules. By the beginning of school age, fairly simple role-playing games are available. With early diagnosis, regular treatment and training according to a special program, it is possible to achieve good social adaptation of children with cerebral-organic mental retardation. Due to the organic nature of the disorders, it is advisable to study first at a school where there is an opportunity to study under a program for children with mental retardation, and then at a sanatorium-type school.
With frequent somatic diseases in children, somatogenic mental retardation may occur. In case of severe somatic diseases (pneumonia, surgical operations) in preschool children, mental development retardation may occur. In this case, the child loses recently acquired skills and returns to earlier forms of behavior. If these diseases are repeated frequently, then by school age the child does not master the necessary skills and abilities. In addition, somatic diseases naturally affect the nervous system, leading to emotional lability, exhaustion, and fluctuations in active attention.
In the absence of positive emotional stimuli, developmental and educational influences, the child experiences the phenomenon of sensory deprivation. As a consequence of this, young children develop a need for self-stimulation: they rock stereotypically, suck a finger or blanket, and may experience masturbation. These manifestations significantly inhibit the mental and sometimes physical development of the child. In the future, when the child returns to more favorable conditions, the acquired autostimulation skills can remain for a long time.
Concentration and distribution of attention are impaired. Memory and intellectual abilities are not significantly affected. Emotional lability is pronounced: at the slightest failure in completing tasks, children cry and cannot begin the next task for a long time. Self-esteem is low. Gaming interests predominate; some games can be stereotypical and serve as protection against fears. Children of this type easily develop school anxiety.
Mental retardation may occur due to pedagogical and microsocial neglect. This type of mental retardation is formed in children with a healthy nervous system and normal prerequisites for intellectual development, but brought up in unfavorable conditions [29]. Among them, the largest number of children live in families with mentally retarded, mentally ill parents, as well as in conditions of neglect and hypoprotection, which often occurs in cases where parents abuse alcohol or drugs. The result is social immaturity of the individual, a violation of the system of interests and ideals, and a lack of sense of duty. In addition, the child does not have enough knowledge and has a poor vocabulary.
N.Ya. Semago and M.M. Semago [30] proposed dividing the category of children traditionally classified as “mental retardation” into two fundamentally different subgroups. To the subgroup “delayed mental development” they include variants of truly delayed development, which is characterized precisely by a slowdown in the rate of formation of various characteristics of the cognitive and emotional-personal spheres, including the mechanisms of regulatory activity.
Another subgroup was called “partial immaturity of higher mental functions.” The development of this group of children is characterized by a qualitatively different structure of the components of the child’s mental activity.
The advantages of this approach are that such differentiation reflects the specifics of children’s problems and determines the priority direction of one or another type of correctional work.
Thus, mental retardation is a psychological and pedagogical definition for the most common deviation in psychophysical development among all children. These children differ from mentally healthy children in that they are not able to master the general education school curriculum, have persistent learning difficulties, they have delayed development of speech and motor skills, the emotional and volitional sphere is not developed, there are frequent mood swings, increased distractibility, and poor educational motivation. , predominance of gaming activity, decreased performance, fatigue, impaired social behavior. These children do not have disorders of the analytical systems and are not mentally retarded; their level of development corresponds to a younger age. Doctors, teachers, defectologists, psychologists, and sociologists work with such children and try to socialize children with mental retardation as much as possible. Specialized groups are being created in kindergartens and correctional classes in schools.
Due to the high prevalence of mental retardation in the child population, it seems extremely important to timely identify delayed mental development of the child and the earliest possible start of adequate corrective measures, on which not only school performance will depend, but also the successful adaptation and socialization of the child in both the school environment and in life in general.
1.1. Understanding speech, its meaning and functions in scientific literature
Speech is the highest mental function, which is the main means of expressing thoughts. Within the framework of the created A.R. Luria neuropsychology considers speech function both from the point of view of its psychological characteristics and brain organization. The complexity of the structure of speech is emphasized, in which two main levels are distinguished: 1) gnostic and praxic; 2) semantic [25, p. 79].
Gnostic and praxic functions in the structure of the speech function of A.R. Luria regarded them as basic, over which the semantic level of speech activity is systematically built up throughout life, associated with the use of language means - words, phrases constructed according to the rules of grammar.
The important role of A.R. Luria gave an indirect character to the speech function. He pointed out that speech activity requires various non-verbal supports, such as optical images and symbols of objects, ideas about quantity, time, space, etc., and at the same time it itself serves as an intermediary. Without speech it is impossible to master any field of knowledge, even mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. This means that:
1) the acquisition of speech requires enormous and at the same time multimodal brain costs: it cannot be mastered without the formation of multiple associative connections between the most different areas of the brain;
2) mastery of any higher mental activity is impossible without activation of the pathways leading to the speech zones of the brain, and if possible, then in a significantly limited volume or in a roundabout way, such as in case of deafness, often referred to in everyday life as deaf-mutes [25, p. . 94-96].
Speech is a form of human communication through language. Speech includes the processes of generating and perceiving messages for the purposes of communication or for the purposes of regulation and control of one’s own activities. The structure of speech activity includes the phases of orientation, planning (in the form of “internal programming”), implementation and control. Depending on the type of speech activity, speech is distinguished into internal and external (oral and written) [26, p. 99].
Inner speech is various types of use of linguistic meanings outside the process of real communication. N.I. Zhinkin and A.N. Sokolov distinguishes three main types of inner speech:
1) internal pronunciation - “speech to oneself”, preserving the structure of external speech, but devoid of phonation, i.e., pronouncing sounds, and is typical for solving mental problems in difficult conditions;
2) internal speech itself, when it acts as a means of thinking, uses specific units (code of images and schemes, subject code, subject meaning) and has a specific structure, different from the structure of external speech;
3) internal programming, i.e. the formation and consolidation in specific units of the idea (type, program) of a speech utterance, the whole text and its content parts (etc.) [13, p. 106].
In ontogenesis, internal speech is formed in the process of internalization of external speech [31, p. 73]. L.S. Vygotsky considered inner speech as a compressed program of a coherent utterance [7, p. 213-217]. The expansion of the internal semantic scheme into an external statement is ensured by predicativity, which is expressed in words denoting actions, the rhythmic-intonation structure of speech and other non-formalizable components of verbal behavior. The mechanism for generating a statement, according to L.S. Tsvetkova, consists of four links: the first link begins with the formation of a motive, which in the second link is objectified in the design; in the third link, the plan is realized at the level of internal speech in the form of an internal psychological program of utterance, for which the main thing is semantics and predicativity; in the fourth link, this program is implemented in external speech on the basis of the laws of grammar and syntax of a given language [40, p. 88].
I.N. Gorelov [11] distinguishes the following stages in the process of generating a statement:
1. Motive (setting for communication).
2. Stage of communicative intention.
3. The moment of formation of the semantic content of the future utterance in the Code of Criminal Procedure (according to Zhinkin), i.e., the stage of the general plan in which a holistic semantic “picture” of the future utterance is formed: in the presence of meaning and semantics, there are no specific words and syntactic structures [14, p. 21].
4. Code.
5. Expanding the nuclear meaning (theme).
6. Syntactic scheme.
7. Grammatical structuring and morphemic selection of specific vocabulary.
After seven stages of speech production, the nasyllabic motor program of external speech is implemented. All stages of speech production are implemented quickly, in addition, the stage of speech production control is carried out in parallel. In addition to external and internal, there are impressive (perception and understanding) and expressive (reproduction) speech. The speech function occupies a key position in the development of the psyche. It is the main way of communication between people and the main tool for understanding the world. Speech activity would be impossible without mastery of the means of language, which are organized into special systems (codes). Each speaker can draw from these systems the words and rules he needs to construct an utterance.
The phonemic system of a language (phonemic code) is a set of basic means of conveying thoughts in words. The central unit of this code is the phoneme.
Communicative speech is divided into dialogical (situational and non-situational) and monological. Dialogue speech, especially situational speech, is assessed as simpler, since paralinguistic means of expressing thoughts (gestures, facial expressions, intonation) occupy a much greater place in it than in monologue. Typically, speech automatisms include ordinal and affectively colored speech (exclams, swearing, etc.) [26, p. 101-102].
Currently, thanks to the successes of neuropsychology, it has been established that speech has a dynamic cerebral organization, and specific zones that carry out its different aspects have been identified. Only the totality of all speech zones ensures the implementation of the speech function as a whole, however, in ensuring its individual types, different parts of the brain have priority.
Where to go if your child has speech problems?
Speech disorders require long-term, targeted correction work under the guidance of a speech therapist. It is important to find a qualified specialist who has a wide range of knowledge and techniques for treating speech therapy disorders. With a responsible attitude towards the development of a child’s speech, it is possible to completely adapt him to interaction with society, communication, and learning at school.
Our clinic welcomes a professional speech pathologist with many years of experience, an honorary member of the National Association of Speech Therapists. We will be happy to help your children overcome any difficulties with speech and enjoy full and joyful communication with the outside world.
1.2. Speech disorders and their causes
Speech disorders, according to the opinion of S.L. Volkova and R.I. Lalaeva, mean disorders, speech pathology, deviations from the speech norm accepted in a given language environment in the process of functioning of the mechanisms of all types and components of internal and external speech: oral (phonetic, lexical-grammatical, tempo-rhythmic, melodic-intonation components) and written, completely or partially preventing verbal communication, limiting the possibilities of human social adaptation. Violations, as a rule, are caused by deviations in the psychophysiological mechanism of speech, do not correspond to age, cannot be overcome independently and can have an impact on a person’s mental development. The specificity of speech disorders depends on the time of their manifestation (during the process of speech development or after its completion), on the level of mental and intellectual development, on the influence of surrounding and other factors [23, p. 41-42].
Among the factors contributing to the occurrence of speech disorders in children, a distinction is made between unfavorable external (exogenous) and internal (endogenous) factors, as well as environmental conditions.
The main causes of pathology in children’s speech, according to O.V. Pravdina, are:
1) various intrauterine pathologies that lead to impaired fetal development (the most severe speech defects occur when fetal development is disrupted in the period from 4 weeks to 4 months; the occurrence of speech pathologies is facilitated by toxicosis during pregnancy, viral and endocrine diseases, injuries, Rh incompatibility -factor, etc.);
Types of speech disorders in children
Major speech disorders:
- Alalia is a complete absence or severe underdevelopment of speech. It occurs due to damage to the speech centers of the brain, which occurred in utero or in the first 3 years of a child’s life. In case of underdevelopment of speech, there is a late onset of conversation, poor vocabulary, difficulties in constructing sentences, and a violation of phonemic processes.
- Rhinolalia is a disorder of voice formation and articulation, which is caused by pathology of the structure and functioning of the speech apparatus. Symptoms include: problems with vocabulary and speech grammar, distortions in sound pronunciation, problems with written speech, and disruption of phonemic processes.
- Aphasia is a pathology of the formation, reproduction or perception of speech. The child loses the ability to understand other people's speech or use his own. At the same time, the hearing organs and muscles of the articulatory apparatus are intact. The disorder occurs due to organic damage to the centers of perception or speech formation.
- Dysarthria is a disorder in the pronunciation of individual words, sounds or syllables. Caused by pathology of the muscles involved in the act of speech and the central part of the speech motor analyzer. Dysarthria includes problems with sound pronunciation, speech breathing, and speech motor skills.
- Stuttering is a spasm of the laryngeal and articulatory muscles, due to which the child lingers on any sound and often repeats sounds, syllables, and words. Speech can completely stop at the moment of stuttering or break the smoothness of the conversation and its rhythm.
