Rhetoric and oratory skills to convince anyone - tips

Updated July 21, 2022 868 Author: Dmitry Petrov
Salve, carissimi legentibus KtoNaNovenkogo.ru! Today we say hello in Latin, because we have to talk about what rhetoric is.

Yes, this science became known to the world thanks to Ancient Greece. But it was in the Roman Empire that it reached the peak of its importance.

So, in this article we will consider the definition of rhetoric, its subject, main vectors and connections with other sciences.

What is rhetoric

Rhetoric

is a philological discipline that studies oratory, eloquence, worldview and the rules of speech construction.

The very first professor from Rome, Quinitilian, called rhetoric as “ the art of speaking well.”

" However, Plato, who lived 500 years before him, said that rhetoric is the art of persuasion. But not art, which is based on knowledge and truth, but on the apparent.

His student Aristotle argued the following. Every time we try to convince someone or talk them out of something, we consciously, subconsciously or unconsciously use rhetoric.

Speaker's task:

1. Learn
2. Entertain
3. Move the public to do something

Types of rhetoric:

1. Political is a management tool in a political system. Possesses journalistic speech with the function of persuading society.
2. Legal - necessary for lawyers to deliver a public judicial speech and influence the legal consciousness of people. It is also needed to build an objectively reasoned argument in court.
3. Military - needed for military culture and adaptation of people to service. With its help, the quality of performing assigned tasks during service increases. For example, the motivation of soldiers for a military task.
4. Pedagogical - used to optimize the process of transferring experience. For example, a good speech by a teacher to students. It creates curiosity and interest in the topic.
5. Diplomatic - necessary for a diplomat in diplomatic missions. This is communication between states through their representatives. Here, too, you need to monitor your speech and follow important rules.

You can look at how rhetoric has developed on an international scale. Or look at different parliaments around the world. Then you quickly find the difference between at what level ( for example, politics

) convince the public and the electorate.

For example, in England and America, where there is a long tradition of the rhetoric of argumentation, parliament is interesting. There are real spontaneous debates there.

And if you look at the German Bundestag or the Russian Duma, then politicians there simply read the speech from the page.

But be that as it may, in different countries there are rules of rhetoric that should be followed. And we will talk about them below.

Rhetoric is...

The word “rhetoric” has ancient roots. It was first used in Ancient Greece. Literally, the lexeme ῥητωρική is translated as “ oratory ”. In turn, it goes back to the word ῥήτωρ - “orator”.

It is important to understand that in modern terminology such concepts as rhetoric and oratory are not equal, although initially they really meant the same thing. Rhetorical science, as it developed, incorporated the theory of prose and argumentation.

So, at the moment the following definition :

Rhetoric is a science that studies the art of speech, the laws of generation, transmission and perception of statements.

Unlike other disciplines, which in a broad sense go back to philology, rhetorical teaching carries within itself other values. It is primarily aimed at solving applied problems .

In ancient times (including in Russia), this discipline implied not only language proficiency , but also the use of this proficiency for good purposes - to lead to good, to guide people on the path of the true.

The Russians used native vocabulary to denote this science - the words red-speaking, good-language, good-speaking...

Public speaking

Oratory requires that the speaker and his audience be completely compatible with each other. After all, every audience is different and every audience needs a different speech.

If I speak in front of specialists, I should use more professional phrases and terms.

And if there is a conversation in front of an inexperienced audience, then you need to structure your speech more pedagogically. It's better to start with the most basic concepts and only move forward slowly.

If this is a conversation in front of a young audience ( students and academics

), then you should perform dynamically and be funnier.

But if we speak in front of professors and deans, then we need to be more serious and joke a little less.

And this is the most interesting thing about rhetoric! The same speech will be loved and a huge success in front of the same audience. However, this will completely reject the other.

It follows from this that a good speaker will always ask himself the question - who is sitting in front of me? Who is my audience and what are the characteristics of the target audience? What do they know and what would they be interested in hearing?

Such analysis is the speaker’s main weapon.

So if you have a presentation, always have different versions for different audiences. For example, for specialists, young people, beginners and the elderly.

How to convince your audience with arguments?

Arguments need to be made weighty, and not just listed. Usually, when people argue, they try to bring more arguments.

For example, they say this for economic reasons, this for political reasons, and so on. As a result, they do not develop their argument at all, but simply give an enumeration. They don't go deep.

And if we want to convince people, then it is very important to go deep and build a beautiful argument.

Types of arguments in rhetoric

Here are the main types of arguments in rhetoric:

• To logos is the statement defended by the speaker. It is considered a more correct form, as it is based on the true circumstances of the case.
• Towards ethos - it appeals to the participants in communication ( the speaker and the audience
  ). It is divided into two types: Towards authority - it is considered correct only on the basis of an authoritative source of information. This includes quotes and opinions of great people, the authority of a position, organization, institution, and so on.
• To the individual - highlights the personal qualities of another person. Everything is based on the personality of the opponent, and not on the essence. Mainly used when criticizing other people's statements. Divided into: Indicates that the opponent is acting contrary to the argument
• Getting personal ( criticism and insult
  )
• Explaining your opponent's point of view with his personal circumstances

Outline of a good argument

SEXI

is an argumentation scheme. These letters represent one element in the argument. Under no circumstances should he be forgotten.

S

(
statement
) - statement. For example, we should open a new branch in Ukraine. Or I think that you should pay me more for my work.

E

(
explanation
) - explanation or justification. That is, to what extent we can substantiate our statement. Unfortunately, many have a very short rationale. As a rule, 2 - 3 logical justifications.

But often it does not convince because the person does not understand the other person's point of view. Therefore, you need to give at least ten ( and preferably twenty

) offers.

The deeper the justification, the more likely it is to convince the interlocutor. But in fact, a third element of argumentation in rhetoric is still needed.

X

(
eXample
) - example.
It's always good to have a concrete example of what you're talking about. This could be a fictitious ( made up
) example. But it is desirable that it be from real life.

You give an example of a competing company that opened a branch in another country. Or you are talking about a colleague who received 10% more salary than you.

It is worth saying that the example is very simple in argumentation. It's much easier to understand. It also acts as evidence. If there is an example from life, then your abstract justification is not just some kind of theory. There is real life evidence for this.

I

(
impact
) - significance. It is worth explaining why what we say is not only correct, but also significant for the interlocutor.

You can imagine that we are talking about a formula that plays no role in life. But if we can show that this rule has great weight, then the person will change his thinking and action.

That is, it is not enough to simply explain and give an example why the statement is correct. At the end of the speech you need to say why this is important in everyday life.

Remember that the truth lies in the depths!

Therefore, the argument must be presented as if we are digging a deep hole. And the more information we provide with justification, example and significance, the more likely it is to convince.

Which arguments are especially effective?

There are hundreds of possibilities for argumentation and explanation. But still, the most effective type is an argument for benefit

. If we show some advantage, then the person will readily agree.

People have different needs and wants. For some, the most important thing is money. You can show that he will earn more or lose less. In this case, this argument will have the main force.

There are people for whom reputation is important. You can explain in the rationale that if you do this, then his reputation will rise. Then such a person will believe us faster.

There are people who believe in freedom. In this case, you need to prove that if you do this, then he will have more freedom. Then this person will believe us.

In general, focus not only on having a deep argument ( statement + justification + example + significance

).
But pay attention to what
the target audience interests

After all, there are a lot of arguments. However, only a few of them will truly convince the public.

And the important thing for the speaker is to recognize what the main benefit is for the audience. Because if he correctly finds the benefit, then the public will have a natural interest in believing the argument.

What does science study?

The subject of rhetoric, as a science, includes methods of forming useful oral and written speech, as well as the process by which thoughts are transformed into speech.

In order to determine the tasks of rhetoric, it is necessary to know about its main directions. There are two of them:

1. Logical, in which the main aspects are the ability to convince the listener and effectively present information.
2. Literary, in which the most important elements are the richness and attractiveness of words.

Taking into account the fact that in this science these directions are combined, real rhetoric sets itself the task of making speech correct, convincing and expedient. Having defined what rhetoric is and why it is needed, there is no doubt about its necessity in the life of a person, especially those engaged in public activities.

How to learn to speak beautifully

Now you will learn how to learn to speak beautifully and competently. These techniques and laws of rhetoric will help you overcome speech barriers. This is especially important in public speaking for beginners. The rules seem to be banal, but few people follow them.

Speak freely

Reading a speech guarantees that you will not be listened to. So speak freely and don't sight read.

The problem is that people are not confident and do not know how to behave in front of the public. In this case, they take a script and write the entire speech word for word. Then everything is read.

But such a few speeches cannot convince anyone!

Therefore, for professionals, I recommend not to take any script with you at all. Just speak freely. It doesn't matter if you forget a couple of points from your speech. The public will never remember 100% of what you said anyway.

If you have 10 points, you speak freely, don’t read from the sheet and forget three points, then it’s not scary. The public will still remember a maximum of three points from what you said.

And for those who feel insecure in front of the public and cannot remember everything, I advise you to make a cheat sheet

.

Take a small piece of paper and write down key words or concepts. Place this sheet in front of you on the table or hide it in your pocket. If there is not enough content, then take out the sheet and quickly look through it.

But the most important thing is not to use a script. Because it is with its help that you will put your audience to sleep. Remember this one of the important lessons of public speaking.

Speak as briefly as possible

In rhetoric, speak as briefly as possible. After all, the longer a speaker speaks, the less interesting his speech seems.

You can test this rule on yourself. If you ask yourself how interested you are in listening to a person for 90 minutes. You say it's long. And even 45 minutes will seem relatively long.

Quite a good and popular format for speeches of 18 - 20 minutes

. People are happy with this. On the one hand, it takes a relatively long time to develop an idea. But on the other hand, this is not an annoying school lesson of 45 minutes.

Therefore, try to make your presentation no more than 20 minutes.

Oratory with emotion

Oratory skills must include emotions. Many people want to appear completely serious and significant in front of the public. They forget that speaking with emotions is very important. After all, emotions encourage people to continue listening and remember what the speaker said.

So when you give a presentation in front of an audience, don't turn into a robot. Don't talk monotonously and just look at your script. Don't speak completely without emotion.

Instead, you need to show your attitude to the topic.

If we are happy, then we need to say it with a smile. Or if we are sad, then we need to speak with a sad face. And if you are angry and dissatisfied, then show that you are angry and you don’t like something.

This is how the public will remember you!

Structure of a speaker's speech

Why should the structure of a speaker's speech be followed? Firstly, it is very good at helping the target audience understand what we say. If there are sections in the speech, then people will know what you are talking about and what you will talk about.

If there is no structure, then the audience gets lost in your speech. She generally doesn’t know where you are now, what you are arguing for or against.

But structure is also important for yourself. If you have a clear structure of rhetoric in your head, then you don't need a script. After all, you know exactly in what order you will speak and give arguments.

Classic structure:

1. Introduction - talk about your topic and thesis
2. The main part - here we argue for or against
3. Conclusion - summing up your speech

But it is not always necessary to structure your speech in a classic style. Sometimes you can start with the most important thing ( the main part

).

For example, to structure speech historically ( in the form of chronology

). That is, what happened before, what is now and what will happen next.

Or, for example, there is a pro-contra structure. In it, you first present arguments for

", then "
against
". At the end, you weigh them and say what was most important for you.

However, whatever you choose for your speech, it is important to have a structure. Prepare it at home and then stick to the plan. This is also an important rule for a speaker.

Rhetorical figures

Every brilliant speaker will do more than just work on their arguments and the content of their speech. He will also develop the style. The last one is rhetorical figures. That is, the way we formulate our ideas. What comparisons, metaphors, parallels we give, and so on.

At one time, rhetoric in the ancient world focused almost exclusively on rhetorical figures. Here I will show the three main ones.

The first thing will be repetition

. If there is a main argument that we repeat at the first, twelfth and eighteenth minutes, then it is more likely that the audience will remember exactly what is needed.

Repetition is a very simple feature of rhetoric. All you have to do is simply repeat your main point. And like a good speaker, you will ask yourself this question.

Where will I want to repeat and at what specific point in the presentation should I do it?

Pause

- This is the second rhetorical figure. Often, when we are nervous in front of an audience, we think about how to finish quickly. And we tend to talk quickly and generally not pause.

The problem is that it is difficult to listen to a speaker who speaks without pauses. After all, he chatters and drives through his speech like a tractor.

However, pausing gives the audience a chance to think about what you have told them. A good speaker will always think about the key place to pause. It should last about 2 - 3 seconds.

By the way, with a pause you, as a speaker, seem most self-confident. After all, you are not afraid to pause while waiting for someone to ask you something.

Metaphor

is the third rhetorical figure that visualizes an idea. For example, saying that he fought like a lion sounds more impressive. It's better than just saying he struggled really hard.

Therefore, you need to find a metaphor ( picture

) for your main idea. This is a great idea for any speaker.

Think about where you need to visualize the main idea. What and what kind of picture needs to be drawn to the public so that it is imprinted in their memory.

Speaker's voice

It is the speaker's voice that determines the mood. By it we perceive a person and can imagine how he feels.

Let's say there is information that is transported in an inappropriate voice. In this case, we trust the mood of the voice more than the content of what is said.

For example, we talk to our parents on the phone and say that everything is fine with us. However, the intonation goes down. In this case, the parents ask us again if everything is okay. They don't believe us and ask what's wrong. Why such an indifferent and bad mood?

Therefore, it is by intonation that we evaluate how much we can trust what was said.

Accent

When we listen to people, we can clearly feel the emotions with which the speaker speaks. What is his mood and what does he want from us?

For example, if you talk to someone on the phone, you can quickly sense the person's mood and intention. That is, we can analyze other people's voices very well. But we have little control over our voice.

Let's start with the emphasis.

In every sentence we subconsciously place a specific emphasis. With its help we completely change the meaning of the sentence.

If we speak monotonously without emphasis ( like a robot

), then after 15 minutes the listener simply becomes uninteresting. And if we emphasize the wrong word, then we say something we didn’t mean to say at all.

For example, let's take a simple sentence.

I don't want this now.

The interesting thing is that if you put emphasis on another particle of the sentence, the meaning will completely change. You can put emphasis on the first letter " i

».

I

I don't want this now

This means that I don't want it, but maybe other people do. But that's exactly what I don't want. You can put emphasis on “ this”

" Then it means that I don’t agree with this proposal and that’s exactly what I don’t want.

If you put emphasis on the word " now

“, then in principle I might and would like to. However, right now I don’t want that.

And if you put emphasis on “ I don’t want”

", then I really don't want to. It's not that I can't or that it doesn't suit me. Namely, I have no desire to do this.

What does this all mean now? Am I using the wrong accent? Now I have to think with every word? Or, with each sentence, ask yourself which word is better to put emphasis on?

No!

There is no need to pay close attention to every sentence. Just think about where it’s best to put emphasis on the key points.

What is the most important thing in my speech and what do I want the audience to remember? And it is in this sentence that I would ask myself which word I would put emphasis on.

Melody

It is worth mentioning the melody of the voice. There are people who speak monotonously and without emotion. Mostly these are men.

Everything comes in one or two tones. There is practically no mobility in the voice. As a rule, after 15 minutes the whole room falls asleep.

Women often speak too emotionally. They can move from the highest tone to the lowest. This number of notes makes it very difficult to listen to.

Therefore, you need to find a balance between monotonous ( 3 - 4 notes

) and too melodic voice movement.

And if there is a problem with self-confidence, watch the direction of intonation. If you are making a statement, use a downward intonation at the end of the sentence. This sounds more confident. And if you want to pose a question, then at the end you can go up intonation.

How to get rid of "um"

It is also worth mentioning the specific sound of speech. For example, " aam

" or "
uh
" People, when they don’t know what to say next, insert this “aam” or “um.”

This is very annoying and annoying. There are people who can make such annoying sounds 30 - 40 times within a minute. If we want to rhetorically embellish speech, then we need to completely get rid of such sounds.

What can be done?

You can enter into a dispute

with your friend or colleague.
You need your partner to count how many times you say the word “ um
.”

um ” more than 20 times within 15 minutes.

" If you are arguing for the first time, then put the number higher. Then further reduce the number. For example, not 20, but 5 times.

Also, as an exercise, record your voice on a voice recorder.

. Take some article and read it for 2 - 3 minutes. Just read the article and pay attention to what was discussed above. Do this several times to hone your ability to speak beautifully.

Practicing the art of speech

If we do not prepare well for our speech as a speaker, then we are almost guaranteed to present it poorly. Therefore, practice the art of speaking at least once out loud.

Unfortunately, many people don't do this. They believe that simply preparing the slides is enough.

But it is important to speak your speech out loud at least once. Because that's when we'll realize how long the presentation is. Sometimes it feels like we've been talking for 5 minutes. But in reality it can be much more or less.

And by speaking aloud, we can well estimate and calculate the time. We also understand in which transitions we lack words, arguments or specific examples. This is when we get a sense of presentation. In what mood do we speak and finish?

If you want to become a skilled speaker, then train your speech not only in theory and on slides. But say it at least once. For particularly important presentations, I advise you to speak 2 or 3 times in front of the mirror. Or better yet, record yourself on camera and rate the performance.

What is teaching?

What does the word "rhetoric" mean? Translated from Greek, the word rhetoric looks like “rhetorike” and means “oratory.” Initially, this definition implied the ability to speak beautifully and express one’s thoughts in front of other people.

Over time, the concept of rhetoric changed several times, which was influenced by changing periods of people’s cultural development. Therefore, this science, from antiquity to the present time, was perceived differently.

It was founded by the sophists, who said that rhetoric is a discipline that can teach a speaker to prove his position, manipulate and dominate discussions. In modern times, the basis of such a science is harmonizing speech, the search for truth, and stimulation of thought.

Now the word rhetoric is understood as a discipline that allows you to study methods of forming speech, characterized by expediency, harmony, and the ability to influence. In this regard, the subject of rhetoric acts as a mental-speech action. Rhetoric combines the teachings of philosophy, sociology, and psychology, which helps to achieve effective verbal interaction with any public.

Thus, modern rhetoric is considered from three sides:

• This is a science that examines the art of speech, which has specific standards for public speaking in front of people, allowing one to achieve a good result when influencing listeners.
• This is the highest level of skill in delivering a speech in front of an audience, mastery of words at a professional level and excellent oratory.
• An academic discipline that helps students instill the rules of public speaking.

Thus, general rhetoric studies the rules for constructing expedient and persuasive speech, which helps make the speech vivid and memorable.

Speaker's clothing

People are greeted by their clothes and escorted by their intelligence. Therefore, the first picture of a person is created in the first 20 - 40 seconds. First, what you are wearing is visible.

Before opening his mouth, the person we are talking to already has a first idea. So always dress nicely! This is not only good for changing the perception of your audience. But it is also psychologically beneficial for ourselves.

For example, there is an interesting experiment. One weekend people were told to simply run 30 minutes around the park. They had regular sports clothes. In half an hour they ran one specific distance.

The following week, the same people were told to run again. However, this time they were given the best sportswear from top brands. This time they all ran a much faster, longer distance in that half hour.

In general, we feel more comfortable in beautiful things. Because of this, we are more capable physically and intellectually. Therefore, pay attention to the speaker’s clothing. This is also one of the tricky techniques of rhetoric.

Fundamentals of Rhetoric

Rhetoric will tell you everything about public speech, its stages, goals, sources of material, methods of presentation, means of speech influence, as well as the requirements for the speaker’s personality.

Today, the ability to competently build communication is a necessary condition for success in the social life of every person. For those who are directly involved in speaking in front of an audience, this skill is the key to professional excellence.

Let's find out what an effective public speech should be.

The speaker’s speech will be successful if it organically combines logic and emotionality, information content and expressiveness. It is good if it is not read, but pronounced in the form of live communication with listeners.

Language of facial expressions and gestures

Pay attention to the speaker's facial expressions and gestures. This also lies at the heart of rhetoric. I'll tell you about one experiment.

Namely, how professors at one university were filmed. Then they showed this picture to the students, but without sound.

The most interesting thing is that these students were well able to determine how attractive this or that professor was. Although in general, they did not know what the person was talking about, since there was no sound. Additionally, students rated how competent they thought the professor was.

Therefore, the language of facial expressions and gestures is important in how your target audience defines and evaluates you.

Eye contact with the audience

Modern rhetoric is very similar to cuisine. Even if we are not the best cooks, we can still appreciate how delicious a dish is. And we can also talk about the speaker.

Even if we ourselves are not the best speakers, we can clearly determine how good a speaker is. How confident does he feel in front of the public?

If we are talking about the language of facial expressions and gestures, then the main point will be visual contact with the public. If we don’t look at all the listeners, then people perceive us as insecure and incompetent.

Unfortunately, not many people look at their audience!

Instead, they pay attention to the floor, table, or peer at the ceiling. And they do this especially when people are thinking about the next thought.

It is at this moment that the speaker, as a speaker, does not seem competent. After all, if a person does not know what he wants to say, then he looks in a completely different direction. And if he knows, then he looks specifically at the audience.

Here's another lesson in rhetoric. When you record yourself, notice how constantly you look at the camera. And also how often they looked around. If you notice that it’s bad, then repeat the exercise 2 - 3 times.

If there is an audience sitting in front of us, then often bad speakers look in one direction. And if they look at the public, then at a couple of people they like. But they don't look at all the participants in the seminar.

This is a big mistake!

After all, with good visual contact we can integrate the audience into our presentation. And do it as if we are speaking in dialogue with a person, and not a group.

So it's important to not just look up, down, or straight to one side. You need to look at absolutely all the people in the room. This is another trick in the art of public speaking.

Where and how to stand during a presentation

Many people don't know where to stand during a presentation. Left, right or center. The answer is simple. You need to stand in the center

the place that is predisposed for the speaker. That is, not to the side, not far or close to the audience.

If a person is not centrally positioned in the expected position for a speaker, then he is perceived as lacking self-confidence.

How exactly should you stand?

It is clear that posture should be straight. There is no need to hunch over, stand crookedly or lean on one side. There are those who lean on the table in front. You don't need to do this either. There is also no need to wobble your legs and arms.

Stand facing the audience.

Don't be afraid to move a little to the right, left, forward and back. You don’t need to stand in one place rooted to the spot all the time.

In large rooms it is better to move a little to the sides. This is good for the audience's eyes. Sometimes you need to walk around your stage.

However, you don’t need to move around like a pendulum all the time.

For example, take two steps to the left and stop there. From there, talk for 30 - 50 seconds and change your position in the room again. At the same time, stay close to the audience and do not go too far into the distance.

In general, such slight movements to the side are also good. But standing centrally is even better.

Speaker Gestures

Very often people do not gesture at all. Some hold their hands behind their backs. In this case, there is no connection with the speaker and no trust in him. He seems to be hiding something.

Therefore, keep your hands visible at all times. Moreover, you need to keep it in the active zone

. Everything below the belt in rhetoric is a passive zone. And if the speaker is nervous, he begins to shake his hands from side to side. It doesn't look professional.

Therefore, the hands must be in the active zone. This is approximately in front of your stomach. There is also an aggressive zone for politicians. This is where gestures are at head level or even higher. But you don't have to do that!

Gestures should also be specific and visualize what you are saying in words.

This is especially useful when comparing different options. You can clearly visualize each characteristic with your own hands.

If you weigh them, you can show the scales and palm level for each option with your hands. It's like you're weighing on a scale.

If you say that you need to be precise, then use your hand to place a dot in the air. At the same time, say that you need to be very precise at this point. This point in the air gesture will help you visualize your idea.

Or if you say that there is a limit somewhere, then draw a line with your hand in the form of a border. Show your listeners the wall you can't cross.

Does every idea need to be visualized with gestures?

No no need. Visualize only the most important ideas. For example, if you want to distance yourself from some company, then make a repulsive gesture. It's like pushing someone away from you with your hands.

How to spontaneously come up with gestures if the emphasis is on someone else?

I will say that in your oratory it is good to have at least one specific and thoughtful gesture. For important moments, think about what kind of visualization and what gesture you can use to emphasize what was said.

Legs

90% are staring us in the face. 10% look at gestures. It would seem that this has nothing to do with the legs. But what people really pay attention to is their upper body.

They try to control their gestures and gaze. However, they forget that they also have legs. As a result, all sorts of incidents happen to the legs.

For example, when women are nervous, they simply cross their legs. And the men begin to wobble on their knees. It feels like they want to run away somewhere.

Therefore, the legs should be straight and not crossed. The public may not consciously look at your feet. However, she will subconsciously feel that at this moment you are not confident.

Here's another exercise for you.

I recommend recording yourself at home and watching the performance, but without sound. This is necessary to concentrate on your body language. This way you can check how accurately you are looking into the camera. How much gestures emphasize what was said.

If you don’t like it, repeat the exercise several times.

Subject and tasks of rhetoric

Over the course of history, this science has undergone many changes. Scientists identify two main vectors, based on the understanding of good, high-quality speech. Depending on this, the subject part of rhetoric is interpreted differently:

1. the first direction is traced back to the name of Aristotle.
   Within this vector, a good speech is a speech that is capable of producing the desired effect and convincing. The speaker’s task is to make the listener agree, to arouse sympathy, and then to do what the rhetorician wants.

2. the second direction goes back to Isocrates.
   This concept understands good speech as speech that is beautiful, lush, and correctly constructed. Yes, they also pay attention to efficiency, but aesthetics come first (how is that?).

In different eras, the views of rhetoricians were distributed differently within these directions.

According to G.V. Anisimova:

The subject of modern rhetoric is the general patterns of speech behavior that operate in different communication situations (how is that?), areas of activity, as well as the practical possibilities of using them in order to create an effective statement.

That is, at the moment the Aristotelian vector dominates. goal achievement, efficiency, and not the beauty first .

How to overcome stage fright

Here are tips to help you overcome stage fright. These rules are also very important when speaking. Especially in front of a large audience. If you follow the recommendations below, you will not have any problems with fear.

Why do so many people have stage fright?

Where does stage fright come from? The first problem is that people are always afraid of new things

or something that is rarely done. If you practice speaking weekly, you won't have such fear. You are no longer afraid to stand in front of a group of people and explain something to them.

And for a standard person who does not perform, this is a very unusual situation. People often feel awkward in it.

Therefore, you need to constantly practice and speak in public as often as possible. This way the situation will become ordinary and familiar to you.

The second reason why people are afraid to speak in public is the fear of making a mistake.

. Our culture is built on catching mistakes and giving negative points for them.

For example, at school, because of mistakes, they give a worse grade. At home, our parents punished us for bad behavior. That's why we are afraid of making a mistake.

This is where fear arises in the compartment!

I recommend not paying attention to mistakes and treating them calmly. Mistake is normal. You learn a lesson from it. And if you suddenly make a mistake again, it will only take you to the next level of knowledge.

Competence effect

The competence effect is the first tip against stage fright. If you are knowledgeable about the topic, you will feel more confident during the presentation. If you master the topic, then the words will automatically follow you.

Therefore, if you are not a big expert in your topic, then it is better to prepare for the presentation in advance. Otherwise, you simply won’t know where to start.

If you have a free hour, it is better to divide it into several pieces of 12 minutes each. For example, we prepare 12 minutes on Monday. Then we prepare for 12 minutes on Tuesday and so on.

This kind of repeated preparation will allow you to gradually integrate into the topic. This is much better than preparing once in an hour. This is how the brain gets used to the material. As a result, stage fright is greatly reduced, and you begin to feel more confident.

Acclimatization

The next method that helps overcome stage fright in front of the public is the acclimatization effect.

When we hold a presentation in an unfamiliar room, it makes itself felt. If we don’t know exactly where the windows, doors and entrance are, then we don’t acclimatize to the room. This again creates uncertainty.

How are Olympic champions trained?

They arrive in advance at the place where they will compete. For example, they check what the pool looks like. What is the temperature of the water in it? Runners usually want to run a few times and get a feel for the track.

Therefore, if you are performing in a new room, ask to inspect it in advance.

It would also be good if the day before the event you ask to perform in this room. This is necessary to find out the effect of the sound of your voice and how many people will be able to listen to you.

And just get acquainted with all the parameters of the hall. Where are the doors? Where do people usually come from? What distance do you want to take from the audience and so on.

If they don’t allow it in advance, then arrive at least 40 minutes early and get ready.

Development of rhetoric in Russia

Rhetoric in Russia arose on the basis of Roman science. Unfortunately, it was not always in such demand. Over time, when political and social regimes changed, the need for it was perceived differently.

Development of Russian rhetoric in stages:

• Ancient Rus' (XII–XVII centuries). During this period, the term “rhetoric” and educational books on it did not yet exist. But some of its rules were already applied. People at that time called the ethics of speech eloquence, piety or rhetoric. Teaching the art of the word was carried out on the basis of liturgical texts created by preachers. For example, one of these collections is “The Bee,” written in the 13th century.
• First half of the 17th century. During this period, a characteristic event was that the first Russian textbook was published, revealing the basics of rhetoric.
• The end of the 17th – the beginning and middle of the 18th century. At this stage, the book “Rhetoric”, written by Mikhail Usachev, was published. Many works were also created, such as “Old Believer Rhetoric”, works “Poetics”, “Ethics”, several lectures on the rhetorical art of Feofan Prokopovich.
• XVIII century. At this time, the formation of rhetoric as a Russian science took place, to which Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov made a huge contribution. He wrote several works dedicated to it, of which the book “Rhetoric” became the basis for the development of this science.
• Beginning and mid-19th century. This period is characterized by the fact that there was a rhetorical boom in the country. Famous authors published a large number of textbooks. These include the works of I.S. Rizhsky, N.F. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K.P. Zelensky, M.M. Speransky.

However, starting from the second half of the century, this science begins to actively supplant literature. Soviet people studied stylistics, linguistics, speech culture, and criticized rhetoric.

Types of rhetoric

Currently, there is the following classification of rhetoric by type:

• socio-political (parliamentary and rally speeches, campaign speeches), which is characterized by emotionality, and often pathos, for persuasion and motivation to action;
• academic (scientific review, educational lecture), with arguments and facts, structured, sometimes monotonous and indifferent, as soon as the speaker loses touch with the audience, reading a prepared text;
• social and everyday (welcome, table, anniversary address, toast), for the most part simple and sincere, not distinguished by perfect logic and clear structure, but sincere and kind-hearted;
• judicial (accusatory, defensive), strictly reasoned and balanced, determining the fate of a person;
• theological-church (sermon, official church speech) uplifting spiritually, bringing joy, instructing for good;
• military (address-order, instructive, inspiring speech), specific, strict, strengthening patriotic feelings, nurturing love for the Fatherland;
• diplomatic (speech at international negotiations and conferences), characterized by a high degree of responsibility for every word spoken;
• business (business as well as telephone conversations), the obligatory elements of which are accessibility, expressiveness, and literacy;
• dialogical (interview, argument, discussion), which requires practicing the skills of proper dialogue.

The connection between rhetoric and other humanities

Rhetoric is a philological science. But being a multifaceted teaching, it is closely intertwined with a variety of areas of knowledge related to the effectiveness of communication, and also uses methods of non-speech sciences.

Rhetoric is associated with:

• logic - the science of correct thinking;
• grammar, which studies the rules of speech;
• poetics - the study of the means and techniques of artistic expression;
• a culture of speech that obliges us to comply with the norms of the literary language;
• stylistics, which studies the patterns of language functioning in the process of speech communication.

The use of psychological methods makes it possible to explain human behavior and understand his state of mind.

The connection between rhetoric and ethics provides knowledge of the laws of morality and morality of society. The union of rhetoric and philosophy allows us to raise the solution of any problem to a higher moral and spiritual level.

General and specific rhetoric (review).

Subject and goals of rhetoric.

Rhetoric includes two main sections - general rhetoric and special rhetoric. General rhetoric studies the principles and techniques of creating an idea and its embodiment in a completed statement. Private rhetoric studies the peculiarities of the construction of verbal works in various genres and types of literature.

The structure of general rhetoric reflects the process of the rhetorician’s creation of an utterance from conception to completed text. General rhetoric contains (1) the doctrine of the rhetorician; (2) the doctrine of argumentation, that is, the relationship of arguments to the audience to which they are addressed and which decides on their acceptability; (3) the doctrine of rhetorical construction, that is, the creation of a work of words. In educational presentation, rhetorical construction usually absorbs the doctrine of rhetoric and the theory of argumentation. This is done so as not to complicate the already labor-intensive learning process.

Rhetorical construction is the doctrine of the so-called “inner word”, or “inner utterance” - ????? ??????????. The utterance is considered at the level of general intent (semantics), at the level of verbal construction (syntactics) and at the level of verbal embodiment (pragmatics - the relationship of the word as an expressive means to the recipient of speech)12, which is manifested in the classical division of general rhetoric into invention (invention), location (disposition) and expression (elocution).

Private rhetoric contains the doctrine of specific kinds and types of literature. Specially in private rhetoric, those types of words that every educated person should actively master are studied: (1) letters on general subjects and literary; (2) documents and business correspondence; (3) dialogues, mostly literary, but giving an idea of ​​the rules for constructing and conducting a discussion; (4) narrative (historical) prose; (5) spoken word in the form of political, judicial, academic oratory, preaching (spiritual), pedagogical and propaganda speech; (6) scientific and philosophical prose13.

The main goal of studying rhetoric is practical - mastery of the art of expedient speech. The art of words is the most necessary, but also the most difficult of all the arts, so mastering it requires serious work and thorough preparation. There are no easy paths to difficult goals.

But rhetoric also has an educational purpose, perhaps no less important. Mastering the art of speech is impossible without fluency in the literary language, without systematic education - knowledge of theology, history, philosophy, law, and fiction. Otherwise, the art of words becomes idle talk.

The study of rhetoric presupposes perfect knowledge of the Russian literary language - a tool of argumentation. Therefore, in the course of studying rhetoric, one should constantly refer to Russian language textbooks, stylistics manuals, explanatory and encyclopedic dictionaries, repeating and reviving in memory those sections of the Russian language school course that may have been forgotten or not sufficiently mastered.

To learn how to build written and oral public speech, you need to: (1) understand how argumentation works, that is, know the theory; (2) read and understand classical works, develop the ability to understand the structure of the work and the intention of its author; (3) practice constructing various types of oral and written statements, learn the skills of independent creative work with words; (4) speak and write publicly.

The first three tasks are solved in the rhetoric course, and the fourth - in the course of the professional activity of the rhetorician. A rhetorician studies throughout his life, but he needs to know what and how to learn. A course in rhetoric is just the basis of the competence of a preacher, teacher, philosopher, lawyer, statesman, publicist, writer - art is born in practice.

So, before we begin the direct study of rhetoric, we should imagine what culture is, what place language occupies in it, how literature came into being and how it is structured.

This course in rhetoric is designed for students at a level beyond the normal high school curriculum. Therefore, when studying rhetoric in senior classes of gymnasiums, junior courses of theological seminaries and secular higher educational institutions, a number of sections of the theoretical course may be omitted.

General and specific rhetoric (review).

The image of a speaker, the qualities of a speaker.

Listeners do not separate the information that the speaker conveys from the personality of the speaker himself (whether we like or dislike the subject depends on the teacher). The audience remembers the speaker and then what he said. In a speaker, the audience wants, first of all, to see personality, individuality, difference from others, wants to know his distinctive features, what position he takes, whether he can be trusted.

The personality of the speaker consists of:

1. Lexicon (vocabulary) - must exceed the vocabulary of the partner or audience. The linguistic personality of a rhetorician is modeled according to the following parameters:

· linguistic biography – human speech development;

· language passport (gender, age, nationality, profession, education, emotional state at the time of speaking);

· linguistic erudition – knowledge of the language and texts in the language;

· rhetorical activity;

· a linguistic act is a speech performance by a speaker that is strategically aimed at changing his biography, career, or activity.

2. Pragmatikon - a system of value systems and motives for the speech activity of a rhetorician. The addressee or audience must understand the motives of the rhetorician’s activities and they must have a moral basis.

3. The picture of the world is a system of categorical concepts in the mind of the rhetorician, which determines the view of the world.

4. Knowledge of precedent texts - stable units (phraseologisms, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms) reflecting the rhetorician’s worldview in its national version.

5. Etiquette portrait.

The image of a rhetorician is created by the efforts of the speaker himself, who tries to create in his speech the impression that he has an individual manner of communication, an individual style of speech.

A rhetorician must be a person of a special kind:

– create the impression of goodwill (the speaker must show that he will not infringe on the interests of his partner);

– create the impression of verbal erudition;

– create the impression of a person capable of speech;

- a rhetorician must have his own image - a system of preferences conscious of the individual (manner of dressing, smiling, facial expression, manner of speaking), the main thing in him is integrity.

Any audience perceives the personality of the speaker in a simplified way, subsuming it under stereotypical schemes and roles; dreamer, practitioner, sucker, old man, moralist, bureaucrat, merry fellow. You need to ensure that your image is favorable, reflects your personality, and that you are perceived the way you want to present yourself. The speaker’s individuality and difference from others should be obvious to the audience, it needs to be demonstrated, there is no need to work for someone else. The individuality of the speaker increases the suggestibility of the audience; all outstanding speakers were individuals.

A rhetorician must have a number of professional skills:

– organizational;

– creative;

– planners (the ability to plan a speech, execute it according to the plan and in violation of it);

– orientational (orientation in the content of speech to the type of addressee, his mood, specific situation);

– psychological and pedagogical – should educate in a non-obvious way;

– perceptual – the ability to process everything visible and perceived for speech;

– social and communicative – be able to communicate;

– actual speech – master the language

Thesis requirements

What are abstracts

1. An abstract is a short scientific text that sets out the main results of the research work (those results that the author wants to report to the scientific community, i.e. the most striking, reliable, significant), as well as the methodology (ways and means) for obtaining them .

2. The author himself (without forgetting to consult with the supervisor) decides which results to describe and which to leave outside the text. For one work (if it is sufficiently meaningful), you can write several theses, presenting various parts, sides, and aspects of the research.

3. Abstracts precede and accompany your presentation at the conference. They are designed to help other conference participants better understand the content of your research, evaluate the scientific nature and reliability of your results.

4. Theses and speech are not the same thing. The speech should be prepared in accordance with the characteristics of the perception of oral speech, while the abstract is a product of written speech, the basis, the skeleton of your future report.

Preparation of abstracts

5. The volume of abstracts is determined by the organization that collects them for their subsequent publication. It can vary from 1 to 5 pages. Remember that the maximum permissible volume is set. This means that the text can be smaller (but not exceed the specified border). At the Department of General and Clinical Psychology, the volume is 1-2 pages.

6. Carefully read the rules for formatting abstracts and follow them. Consider the requirements for font size, margin size, line spacing, the use of various types of highlighting, links and footnotes, the possibility of including diagrams, tables, and figures. If deviations from the proposed rules are significant, the abstracts will most likely be rejected.

7. Most often, the following requirements are specified: Times New Roman font, font size 14, all margins 2 cm, one and a half spacing, please do not include diagrams and drawings.

8. Direct quotation in abstracts is not recommended. If this cannot be avoided, you should highlight the words of the quoted author in quotation marks and be sure to indicate in brackets his initials and surname, the year of publication of the work and the page number on which the statement you are citing appears. If you are retelling the author’s thought, you must indicate his initials, surname and year of publication of the work mentioned. Each name given in the abstract must be accompanied (in parentheses) by an indication of the years of publication of those works in which the point of view of this author you mention is stated. It is unacceptable to include surnames without initials. Initials are placed before the surname (with the exception of a list of references, if it is allowed to include one, which is not always the case for abstracts).

9. Each of the methods mentioned in the abstract must be accompanied by a link to the publication from which it was taken (initials and surname of the author of the method, the year of its publication).

Requirements for the content of abstracts

10. The title of the abstract must correspond to its content. It may repeat the title of the course (thesis) work, or may differ from it (for example, if the abstract reflects part of the research conducted).

11. Abstracts must include answers to three questions:

• what was studied? (statement of the research problem, brief justification of its relevance, novelty, theoretical and practical significance).

• how was it studied? (description of the research methodology: for empirical research - sampling, methods and techniques for organizing work, collecting and processing data, for literature reviews - search methods and criteria for selecting literature on the basis of which the work was prepared).

• what results were obtained? (main conclusions).

The logic of the text and the order of answers to the questions given are determined by the author of the abstract.

12. You should not try to construct abstracts from fragments of an already written work. In this case, logical connections between fragments may be lost, and the reader will have difficulty understanding your research. Better try to re-describe the study as a whole.

13. Don’t be afraid, everyone has done this for the first time at some point. You can do it!

The main secrets of good theses

14. Good abstracts are the result of well-done research. It is unlikely to write good abstracts on poorly (carelessly, poorly) conducted research work that does not meet established requirements. But the opposite is still possible. You need to work hard on good theses; it won’t happen on its own.

15. Carefully formulate the topic of your research (coursework, diploma) work. Use every opportunity to discuss it at seminars and lectures. Write down questions your colleagues have so you can reflect on them later. Check periodicals, collections of articles and theses to see if there is any overlap with the topics of research already conducted by others.

16. Consider study design carefully. Don't ask too many questions in one paper, save them for later stages of your research. Aim for relatively simple, elegant designs.

17. Take the time to think about the hypothesis. The indication that differences will be found between groups is too general. According to the law of individuation formulated in antiquity, differences will always be observed. Therefore, we need to think about what they will be and specify expectations.

18. Work tirelessly to master a course in mathematical methods in psychology. Any gaps in your knowledge in this area, against your will, will appear in the way you describe the methods of mathematical and statistical processing of your data and present the results obtained.

Summary

19. Don't be afraid. Everyone (at least psychology students) has written a thesis for the first time at some point. You can do it!

E.V.Levchenko

13. Requirements for an argument When persuading, not only the quality, but also the quantity of arguments is important. Ten arguments are more likely to convince a listener than five. Firstly, if for you your argument is the tenth, then for your opponent it may well be the first in the hierarchy of his priorities. Secondly, in an hour of persuasive speech, the listener, as a rule, becomes more accustomed to her persuasive statement than in a minute. And, thirdly, somewhere inside each of us there is a counter that records the number of arguments perceived, equating them in quality - both penny and ruble arguments for it are equally equal to one. This counter has an advisory voice in the contradictory parliament of our consciousness, in which two main factions are constantly fighting - hot (emotional) and cold (reasonable). And our internal parliament, under the influence of this voice, can issue something like this declaration to the outside world: “yes, a lot of good things have been said, I agree - I’ll take it without looking.”

So, to increase the effectiveness of persuasion, provide a sufficient number of arguments (of course, their number should not tend to infinity and it is important to take into account the situation - regulations and patience of listeners).

Considering that the beginning and end of an information series are perceived better than its middle, it is appropriate to arrange arguments that have different weights in the following sequence: STRONG, weaker, WEAKER, weaker..., the strongest This series of arguments, called the “Homeric order” (from Homer, who wrote the Iliad), as a rule, evokes more impressions in the listener than any other.

14. Arguments were initially divided into natural evidence (witness testimony, documents, etc., called evidence) and artificial evidence, which in turn were divided into logical, ethical and sensual. Logical proofs included proofs by induction, which included both scientific induction and reasoning by analogy, and deduction, which was divided into syllogisms based on scientifically proven premises, and so-called enthymemes, the premises of which differed only in a certain probability. Logical arguments were combined with natural proofs under the general name ad rem (Latin for “in essence”). The remaining artificial evidence, which will be discussed below, was combined under the general name ad hominem (Latin for “to a person”). The latter play a large role in rhetoric, since they are associated with psychology and an attitude towards direct action, while the former are associated only with logic and an attitude towards reasoning.

Logical evidence can be supported by the opinion of some authoritative scientist or thinker. Even more often, arguments for pathos and ethos are supported by reference to authority. This is the most general classification of rhetorical evidence. In political rhetoric, as in every private rhetoric, it has its own specifics.

15. Natural evidence , or arguments to the obvious, are especially important for judicial eloquence, when the testimony of witnesses or material evidence helps to restore the course of events that have already happened. In deliberative speeches addressed to the future, natural evidence does not play such a decisive role, but is nevertheless used quite often. They reliably “tie” the speaker’s promises and fears to current reality. Their evidential power lies in their objectivity. Having them, the speaker often emphasizes that “these are no longer words, but real deeds, real facts.” In political rhetoric, the role of natural evidence is played by numbers, factual data, written evidence, including the statements of opponents, and eyewitness accounts. The strongest argument for the obvious is inviting the listeners themselves to witness: “You see for yourself...”.

natural evidence is references to numbers, facts, and eyewitness testimony. The decisive role for both the speaker and the listener who is about to object is played by the characteristics of the source. Sources that are immune to criticism are those that have properties such as openness, independence, competence, and integrity.

Arguments for ethos

Rejection and empathy. Relying on collective experience. Systemic nature of ethical argumentation.

Arguments for ethos (literally “custom”, Greek ηθοζ), or ethical evidence, are usually divided into reasons for empathy and reasons for rejection. Both are based on moral ideas common to a given ethos (ethnic group, social group, people of the same faith, denomination). However, the support for them is no longer individual experience, as for arguments for pathos, but collective experience. Arguments for empathy presuppose collective recognition of certain positions, and arguments for rejection presuppose their collective rejection and rejection. In the latter case, ethical proof is carried out by contradiction.

Let us note that arguments for empathy are most often aimed specifically at the individual. A person who is a bearer of socially approved qualities evokes sympathy. If, for example, we are told about a person that he is kind, this will endear us to him, for kindness is one of the qualities especially approved in our ethnic group.

Arguments for rejection are less often directed at the individual. True, when condemning someone, we usually name his qualities that are condemned by our accepted morality. But this is not the best case for using arguments for rejection. It is curious that in the Russian language there are verbs “whitewash” and “denigrate”. There is both the word “slanderer” and the word “slanderer,” but there is no word “whitewasher.” In general, accusation is much more widespread in our culture than justification, and our language has many more words reserved for false accusation than for false justification. Just look at such expressions as “dirty”, “pouring dirt”, “digging through dirty linen”.

The most successful arguments for rejection are directed not at a specific person, but at his vices, which corresponds to the Christian principle of separating sin from the sinner. For example, the rhetorical question “Should we leave children and the elderly without help? And besides, sick children? Helpless old people? will sound like a strong argument for rejection. Everyone understands that we are talking about behavior that is not approved by moral norms. Helpless old people and children should not be abandoned to their fate.

Arguments for ethos appeal to ethical ideas stored in collective memory. They are divided into reasons for empathy and reasons for rejection. It is better not to connect the arguments for rejection with the condemnation of a specific person. If such a connection is necessary, it must be smoothed out by a generalization, “morality”. Arguments for ethos oblige the speaker to many things, placing him in a certain ethical position. This position must be commensurate with both his person and his words spoken earlier.

Arguments for pathos

Threats and promises. Reliance on emotional memory. Compliance of the declared installation with the language.

Arguments for pathos (literally “passions”, Greek παθοζ) appeal to a person’s feelings. Traditionally, they are divided into threats and promises. The threat lies in the fact that the speaker shows what unpleasant consequences the adoption of this or that decision is fraught with.

Arguing for pathos, the speaker uses only two extreme points of the emotional memory scale: what is obviously unpleasant and what is obviously pleasant. The first is associated with a threat, the second with a promise. the use of arguments for pathos is an appeal to the listener’s feelings based on his emotional memory. The very reasons for pathos consist of a promise or a threat. In an effort to activate emotional memory, to infect the listener with one feeling or another, to make them believe in a promise and feel a threat, the speaker must carefully select recognizable situations - frames, must be able to “get into the flow”, awaken familiar memories. He needs to be wary of abstract speech intensifiers and ensure that the linguistic expression of arguments matches the pathos of his speech.

18. General characteristics of the material composition (dispositio). Title. Introduction. Subject

Dispositio includes the study of the order of arrangement and the basic blocks of structure of a text or speech. The basis of the canon of “disposition” was the doctrine of speech composition, on the basis of which such modern disciplines as the doctrine of literary composition and the theory of composition as part of the theory of text arose.

Various rhetoric theorists each offer their own structure of the text, the arrangement of its individual parts. However, it is possible to generalize all the developments of this issue, reducing the main blocks of speech structure to the following: from three (introduction - main part - conclusion) to seven (introduction - definition of the topic with its divisions - presentation - digression - argumentation or proof of your own thesis - refutation - conclusion ). Some authors additionally highlight the title of the text.

In traditional rhetoric, the title was not emphasized in the structure of the speech. The importance of titles has increased with the development of the rhetoric of mass communication. Here the title began to be considered as a means of attracting the attention of the addressee in the conditions of alternative choice associated with the constant increase in the number of messages arriving to the addressee. The functions of the introduction can be reduced to several basic ones: psychological preparation of the audience for the perception of the topic, as well as awakening the interest of listeners in the topic and the formation of favorable psychological conditions her presentations. Tactically, to do this, you can start your reasoning by justifying the choice of topic.

It would not be superfluous to express respect for the audience and opponents, to show the general substantive background against which the topic will unfold. The choice of introduction depends on the type of audience, the nature of the topic and the communication situation. Having weighed all these parameters, the author can choose the introduction that is most suitable for a given situation: ordinary (standard), short, restrained, non-standard (paradoxical), solemn, etc.

At the stage of defining the topic and its subdivision, the author directly determines what he is going to talk or write about next. It is advisable at this stage of the speech to list the most important issues that he wants to cover (aspects of the topic). In a number of genres of special communication (educational lecture, scientific article), it is possible to present a plan for further communication to the audience. Practice has developed a number of criteria that a topic subdivision must meet: logical feasibility; the content of exclusively essential, approximately equivalent aspects of the topic. Since the main task of the speaker is to persuade the audience, rhetoric recommends building the division in an incremental manner: from the least convincing to the most convincing aspects of the topic. The location of the definition of the topic and thesis is not particularly important; it can be located either before the presentation or after the argument. However, the exception is philosophical and artistic works.

10. Main and final parts of the speech

The fourth part of the speech is the presentation of the material, i.e. a sequential story about various aspects of the subject in accordance with the presented plan. There are two methods of presentation:

1) natural (in the literature there are other names for similar methods: plot, historical or chronological method) - the author presents the selected facts in their chronological or other natural sequence (first the cause, then the consequence, etc.);

2) artificial (plot or philosophical method). In this case, the author, deviating from the natural sequence, follows the logic of the theme development that he himself created. In this way, the speaker tries to make the message more entertaining and conflicting, and to hold the audience’s attention using the effect of violated expectation. Here, for example, messages about an event later in time may be followed by a message about an earlier event, after a story about the consequences - a story about the causes, etc.

Retreat or digression, excursion is the fifth compositional part of a rhetorician’s speech. Here, a subject is briefly described that is only indirectly related to the main topic, but the speaker considers it necessary to tell the audience about it. This compositional part is optional. The place of retreat, digression, or excursion in the composition is not strictly fixed. The place of this part is determined either during the presentation, or after the presentation and before the argument. Digression is also used by experienced speakers as a way to relieve mental stress when the topic requires serious intellectual effort from the audience and the author. The excursion also provides emotional release if the author accidentally or intentionally touches upon a topic that is emotionally unsafe for a given audience.

The most important compositional block is argumentation and refutation. Argumentation is understood as a collection of arguments in favor of a thesis in its compositional unity and the process of presenting these arguments. Refutation is the same argumentation, but with the “opposite sign,” i.e., a collection of arguments against the antithesis defended by the opponent or, if the main antithesis is not formulated, against possible doubts and objections regarding the thesis, as well as the process of presenting these arguments (Encyclopedic Legal Dictionary / Edited by V. E. Krutskikh, M., 1999).

In conclusion, the main content of the text is briefly repeated, the strongest arguments are reproduced, and the desired emotional state of the listeners and their positive attitude towards the thesis are reinforced. Depending on which of these tasks the author considers the most important, he can choose the appropriate type of conclusion: summative, typologizing or appealing. In a summary conclusion, the speaker summarizes everything he has previously said. This conclusion is based on the psychological “law of edge,” according to which a person remembers better information located at the beginning and end of the text.

19. Verbal expression or diction (elocutio). The part of rhetoric most closely related to linguistic issues is the canon of “verbal expression,” since it is here that the organization of specific linguistic material is considered, down to the selection of words and the structure of individual sentences.

The verbal expression must meet four criteria: correctness (meet the rules of grammar, spelling and pronunciation), clarity (consist of generally understood words in generally accepted combinations, and, if possible, not include abstract, borrowed and other words that may not be clear to the audience), grace or ornamentation (to be more aesthetic than everyday speech) and appropriateness. Relevance in traditional rhetoric came down to the harmony of the topic and the choice of linguistic means, especially vocabulary. From the requirement of appropriateness arose the theory of three styles, according to which low objects should be spoken in words of low style, high objects in high style, and neutral objects in words of medium style.

These components of the “verbal expression” canon formed the basis of the modern science of speech culture.

The most voluminous part of the old, especially medieval rhetoric was one subsection of the canon “verbal expression” - the doctrine of figures. The opinion was expressed that all “verbal expression” and, in general, all rhetoric without a trace can be reduced to the doctrine of figures.

20. Etiquette formulas for maintaining the attention of the audience * Question-and-answer technique: the speaker poses questions and answers them himself, puts forward possible doubts and objections, clarifies them and comes to certain conclusions;

* The transition from monologue to dialogue (controversy): allows you to involve individual participants in the discussion process, thereby activating their interest;

* Technique for creating a problem situation: listeners are offered a situation that raises the question: “Why?”, which stimulates their cognitive activity;

* Acceptance of novelty of information, hypotheses: makes the audience assume, reflect;

* Reliance on personal experience, opinions that are always interesting to listeners;

* Demonstration of the practical significance of the information;

* Using humor (if appropriate): allows you to quickly win over the audience;

* A brief digression from the topic: gives the listeners the opportunity to “rest”;

* Slowing down with a simultaneous decrease in the strength of the voice: can draw attention to important places in the speech (the “quiet voice” technique);

* The technique of gradation is an increase in the semantic and emotional significance of a word. Gradation allows you to strengthen and give emotional expressiveness to a phrase or formulated thought;

* The technique of inversion is a speech turn that, as it were, turns the usual, generally accepted course of thoughts and expressions into a diametrically opposite one;

* Receiving an appeal to one's own thoughts.

21 . Rhetorical figures of emotional impact Expressiveness (beauty) of speech is a very multifaceted concept, it is a set of speech features that maintain the attention and interest of listeners. Expressiveness is based on richness and is achieved by using expressions in speech that avoid everyday life and unexpected turns.

We can say that expressive speech is emotional speech. The speaker must influence not only the mind, but also the feelings and imagination of the listeners. The imagery and emotionality of speech enhance its effectiveness, contribute to its better perception, understanding and memorization, and provide aesthetic pleasure. But this statement can be refuted - unemotional speech can also be expressive, and a speaker who speaks in an even voice, without betraying his emotions, can make a greater impression than a joker and joker.

The expressiveness of speech, as well as its richness, is the fruit of a lot of work. Gustave Flaubert ensured that he did not repeat the same word even on adjacent pages; to achieve this, he rewrote each page 5–7 times. Only an impromptu that is carefully prepared is successful.

The expressiveness of speech is supported by special linguistic and speech means of expression, which include tropes and rhetorical figures. The purpose of these linguistic means is to make the thought more vivid, accurate, and memorable. It is known that a catchy phrase has a stronger effect on the listener than a deep thought. For example, the words of the poet N.A. are widely known. Nekrasova: “Follow the rule stubbornly: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious.” It’s beautifully said, but if you think about it carefully, this advice will seem strange: it’s cramped when there’s too much of something, but it’s spacious when there’s too little of something, i.e. It is recommended to write in such a way that there are fewer thoughts and more words.

A trope is an unusual use of one word, a figurative use of it that serves for decoration; a word or expression used in a figurative (indirect) meaning.

A rhetorical figure is an unusual turn of speech intended to decorate it and enhance the emotional impact on listeners; special ways of constructing sentences and texts that enhance their expressiveness. If tropes are verbal imagery, then figures are syntactic imagery.

22. Rules for memorizing and delivering a public speech The ancient rhetorical canon identified five stages in preparing and delivering a public speech: invention, or “finding”, “invention”. At this stage, the material necessary for future speech is collected and systematized; disposition, or "disposition". The author of the future speech thinks about the material, structures it, connects details, prepares comments and illustrations for the material; elocution, or “verbal formulation of thought.” In this part, the first edition of the keywords, the stylistic design of the main part, the formulation of the introduction and conclusion, and the final edition of the text are carried out; memorio, or “remembering.” At this stage, it is necessary to mentally master the written text, maybe even learn it by heart and try to master it rhetorically, i.e. highlight places where pauses, voice modulations, non-verbal support of the text and other manifestations of individual oratorical style are necessary; utterance.

Effective public speaking with a speech depends on its purpose and type. There are public speeches: informational, persuasive, calling for action, on a special occasion (protocol, mourning, solemn, anniversary speech, etc.).

As already noted, the speech must be carefully prepared. The topic should not only be interesting, important and understandable for listeners. It should reflect the following factors: - basic and group interests of the audience; — topical interests; — specific interests of individual listeners; - novelty; — polar opinions inherent in the topic.

In addition, the topic must be relevant to the speaker's background and personal interests, relevant to the situation, and relevant to the audience.

The important elements of a public speech are its introduction and conclusion. The manner in which a speaker introduces the beginning of a speech greatly influences the listeners' first impression and interest in the speaker. Typically, an introduction has two purposes: to establish contact with listeners and to grab the audience's attention. Effective techniques commonly used in introductions: - a striking statement; — targeted appeal to the audience; — description of the situation; — quoting a famous person; - posing a rhetorical question; - use of appropriate humor.

At the conclusion, since it remains in the memory, the speaker should touch upon the central idea again. A good conclusion shows listeners that the topic has been fully covered. Here are some of the most common ways a speaker can conclude his speech: - summarize the main points; — offer a solution; - quote a famous person; - pobu