Origin
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Rhetoric is based on the study of the human spirit and the masterpieces of eloquence. Admiration for the powerful effect created by the oratorical genius leads a person to search for the means by which it was achieved. In ancient times, the Greeks highly valued public participation in political life. Therefore, rhetoric has become the most important tool for influencing politics. According to sophists such as Gorgias, a successful orator could speak convincingly on any topic, regardless of his experience in that field.
History of creation
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This is literature, history, politics. Rhetoric has its origins in Mesopotamia. The earliest examples of it can be found in the writings of the priestess and princess Enheduanna (circa 2280-2240 BC). Later ones are in the scrolls of the Neo-Assyrian state during the time of Sennacherib (700-680 BC).
In Ancient Egypt, the art of persuasion appeared during the Middle Kingdom. The Egyptians highly valued eloquence. This skill was very important in their social life. The Egyptian laws of rhetoric state that knowing when to remain silent is respected and necessary. This approach is a balance between eloquence and wise silence.
In ancient China, rhetoric dates back to Confucius. His tradition emphasized the use of beautiful figures of speech.
In Ancient Greece, the use of oratory was first mentioned in Homer's Iliad. His Achilles, Odysseus and Hector were honored for their inherent ability to advise and exhort their peers and associates in wise and proper action.
The first law of rhetoric and principles of dialogization of speech communication
In order to dialogize verbal communication, i.e. In order to get an active response to the speaker’s speech, you need to know the principles of speech behavior.
1. Attention to the addressee.
When preparing for a public speech, professional or personal conversation, first of all, you need to imagine a listener, an interlocutor. Who is he? What are the characteristics of his personality (character, tastes, interests). Are there topics that should not be discussed?
Rhetoric recommends, when thinking about a speech, to draw up in advance a “ social portrait of the listener (audience) . ” It is created as a result of answers to the following questions:
1) the social status of the listener or the social composition of the audience; social role of the interlocutor in relation to you (leader? teacher? comrade? parent? etc.)
2) audience size (number of people);
3) age;
4) the range of special interests of the addressee and a set of “forbidden topics”, personal characteristics of the interlocutor (character, education, upbringing...);
5) why and why did people gather? What will they do as a result of the meeting or conference?
6) How does your message relate to the personal, pressing interests and needs of the recipient?
7) what do they want to get from you as a speaker? What can you offer them? Perhaps what is needed is not so much information as support or strengthening a sense of unity?
How will they use the information they receive from you? When? How?
Once again, I would like to emphasize that the work of drawing up a portrait of the addressee is very useful in any situation: both when preparing for a conversation of a personal or business nature, and when preparing for a public speech. Analysis of the audience will help you think through the course of the conversation, it will help you dialogize even a monologue speech in public speaking - the use of rhetorical questions, appealing to listeners.
The second principle of dialogization of speech is the principle of proximity of the content of speech to the interests and life of the addressee. Having previously assessed and imagined the audience, you need to think through those facts, examples, images that are taken from an area that is vital or familiar, interesting, and accessible to your listener. Human nature is such that he experiences more acutely what concerns him personally, what is close to him. Imagine that an emergency happened: a) somewhere abroad; b) in your city; c) in your house. Which one will attract your attention more? The answer is clear. Experiments show that understanding a text directly depends on how close its content is to the interests of the addressee: the greater this proximity, the fewer options for understanding are found. Therefore, rhetoric recommends showing throughout the entire conversation or speech why what is being communicated is personally important to the addressee, how the issue being discussed directly concerns his vital interests.
The third principle is specificity.
Specificity helps to visually perceive the sounding word, and this is very important for understanding and memorization.
There must be examples - specific manifestations and confirmation of your thoughts.
Pay attention to the imagery of speech .
Select words: it is better to use not a generic concept , but a specific one (not a headdress, but a hat
;
not a transport
, but
a trolleybus
).
When thinking about the structure of your speech , formulate the topic or individual questions as specifically as possible.
Law of promotion and orientation of the addressee
The second law of general rhetoric is the law of advancement and orientation of the addressee , which requires that the listener, with the help of the speaker, be oriented “in the space” of speech and that he feels that, together with the speaker, he is moving towards the goal
.
What means does rhetoric offer to implement this law?
First of all, you need to think about the general structure of the speech. The structure of the speech must be clear not only for the speaker, but also for the addressee, and for this, the speaker must “remember his purpose and main idea at all times and make them obvious to the audience. It’s good when transitions from one semantic part to another also create the impression that the speaker is moving forward, without being distracted, without getting “stuck” and without returning to what has already been passed (21.88).
It is easier to perceive a statement if the principles of constructing the entire phrase are followed. The phrase must have a clear structure. In rhetoric, there is such a concept as a period, about which Aristotle wrote: “I call a period a phrase that itself has a beginning and an end and the dimensions of which are easy to see. This style is pleasant and understandable; it is pleasant because it is the opposite of unfinished speech, and it always seems to the listener that he is grasping something and that something has ended for him; and not having a presentiment of anything and arriving at nothing is unpleasant. Periodic speech is understandable because it is easy to remember, and this comes from the fact that periodic speech has a number, and the number is the easiest to remember. That’s why everyone remembers poetry better than prose...”
(Aristotle Rhetoric: Book Three. - p.9) (For information about the period, see the lecture “Elocution”).
The feeling of movement is created by the very process of performing and delivering a speech. Meaningful pauses and correctly chosen speech tempo are necessary. Repetitions should not interfere with the movement of thought, but emphasize particularly important formulations and conclusions.
Law of Emotionality
The third law of rhetoric, the law of emotionality, requires
“
so that the speaker not only thinks, not only creates his speech with his mind, but also feels, experiences emotionally what he is reporting or talking about
” (21, 90). Even ancient rhetoricians said that only what was personally experienced and felt can be convincingly communicated without leaving the listener indifferent. There are many expressive means developed by rhetoric that make speech expressive. The most powerful of them is metaphor (See chapter “Elocution”). Speech also becomes emotional and expressive thanks to the speaker’s expressive movements and his voice.
Law of Pleasure
The fourth law of rhetoric is the law of pleasure. Speech is then and therefore effective when it gives pleasure to the listener (interlocutor). How to make verbal communication pleasant? First of all, by creating a gaming setup, “riddles” that the listener solves together with the speaker. Ability to use paradox, pun, word play
- this is what will help the speaker please the listener. At the same time, you need to remember; speech should not turn into empty chatter. And yet, pleasing the listener does not mean avoiding difficult questions, sometimes even unpleasant ones. In any situation, you need to remember the culture of communication.
When speaking in public, one must not forget that the addressee perceives speech by ear, and that he must constantly concentrate his attention in order to understand everything that the speaker says. Unclear, confused, monotonous speech tires the listener. Therefore, it is necessary to learn to change the tempo and rhythm of speech, and the pitch of the voice.
Questions for self-examination and reflection.
1. Why is the first law of rhetoric called the law of harmonizing dialogue? How do the other three relate to it? Expand the rhetorical meaning of the terms “harmonizing” and “dialogue”?
2. What principles of speech behavior must the speaker observe in order to “arouse his own inner word in the listener”?
3. How to create a “portrait” of your future listener, addressee?
4. Why is the second law of rhetoric called the law of promotion and orientation of the addressee? How to do it?
5. What is the name of the third law of rhetoric? What does it say?
6. Name and formulate the fourth law of rhetoric? Is it possible for it to manifest itself in unpleasant or tragic situations?
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Application area
Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Some limit it to a specific sphere of political discourse, others cover all aspects of culture. Modern studies of the laws of general rhetoric cover a much wider range of areas than was the case in ancient times. During this time, speakers learned effective persuasion in public forums and institutions such as courtrooms and meetings. The laws of modern rhetoric apply to human discourse. It is studied in a variety of fields, including social and natural sciences, religion, fine arts, journalism, fiction, digital media, history, architecture and cartography, alongside more traditional legal and political fields.
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Principles and laws of rhetoric (speech behavior)
Modern rhetoric proceeds from the fact that there is virtually no passive side in a communicative act. The role of the listener is as active as the role of the speaker. The success of communication depends on the interaction of these two parties. The speaker should not “defeat” the audience, but “cooperate” with it.
of Cooperation becomes the universal principle of successful communication.
, formulated by G. P. Grice. Any communication, including business, is not the path of one person to another, but a movement towards each other. This principle regulates the quantity and quality of information provided by each of the communicants at one or another stage of verbal communication. For example, a rule governing quantity requires that the speaker neither withhold necessary information that is fundamental to making a decision on the issue under discussion, nor disclose information that is not required.
The principle of cooperation and communicative cooperation requires the correct performance of communicative roles: speaker – listener. We have all encountered such a situation in dialogue when we wanted to, but could not speak out. Excessive speech activity of one partner sometimes prevents the other from even indicating his position.
The rules for organizing and optimizing dialogue representing information exchange also include the principle of Interest.
This principle means that dialogic communication develops more dynamically if the information conveyed is of interest to all participants. At the same time, each of the negotiators pursues and satisfies a double interest: regarding the substance of the matter and the relationship between the partners. Relationships based on trust, respect and friendliness allow each subsequent negotiation to turn into a calmer and more effective process.
The next principle developed by modern rhetoric and especially relevant for business communication is the Pollyana principle.
This principle requires that the content of verbal communication meet the criteria for the optimistic mood of the participants.
Recently, a violation of harmony between the tonality and meaning of a statement has been quite common. Leading financiers and experts can talk about the country's difficult economic situation with a smile, peppering their speech with jokes. And business negotiations are often conducted from “losing” positions, positions of disbelief in one’s own strength.
According to the Pollyana principle, even those parties who have not reached an agreement or a compromise solution at the conclusion of negotiations must express hope for resolving the conflict situation or resolving the issue. And you need to start negotiations with faith in your own strength, common sense and the goodwill of your partner.
In business dialogic speech, very often the dynamics of dialogue development are reduced due to repetitions, returns to what has already been said, and unmotivated deviations from the topic. When negative emotions take over, showdowns begin, the parties move away from solving the problem and the principle of Consistency
In the development of the topic.
If the principle of consistency of speech is violated, it can be difficult to concentrate and restore the sequence of thoughts. Therefore, speakers have to return to the same question again and again. In addition to a waste of time, such conversations often end in communication failure.
Pleasure Principle
- This is a universal principle of communication.
We try to communicate more with those who are interesting to us and with whom it is pleasant to talk. In order to win over the interlocutor, they use a wide range of means with the help of which Attraction
. These include:
Etiquette formulas: we have the honor to offer you, dear Nikolai Petrovich, etc.;
Addressing a person by name (proper name technique);
A technique conventionally called the “relationship mirror”
: kind smile, pleasant facial expression. During the dialogue, not only verbal means of communication (words) are taken into account, but also non-verbal ones (facial expressions, gaze, posture, distance, etc.), which provide indirect data about the mood, feelings of the partner, his disposition towards the interlocutor.
The circumstances of life, sometimes poor health are reflected on our face with a grimace of irritation and fatigue, sometimes gloominess and even anger. To enter into a business contact with such a facial expression means harming not only oneself, but also the business, because on the face of the interlocutor, as in a mirror, you will see your mood. Mutual irritation can cause communication failure.
To the Laws
speech behavior, or the laws of modern rhetoric, include the following:
1. Conceptual law. It involves systematizing the discussion material, a comprehensive analysis of the subject of speech and building knowledge about it.
2. The law of audience modeling. Involves knowledge of the audience (interlocutor). The portrait of any audience is determined, firstly, by socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, nationality, level of education, profession), secondly, by socio-psychological characteristics (level of understanding of the problems discussed, attitude towards the subject of speech) and thirdly, individual personality traits (type of nervous system, temperament, mentality, etc.)
3. Strategic law. Based on the characteristics of the audience (interlocutor) and on the basis of the concept and plan, a strategy and a specific program of action are built.
4. Tactical law. Based on the developed strategy, it provides for the use of certain tactics in the communication process in order to interest the interlocutor, provoke him to think and communicate.
5. The law of verbal expression. Provides the ability to put thoughts into effective speech form, logically and colorfully prove your “theses”. Cicero’s formula says: “An orator is one who will present any question with knowledge of his matter, harmoniously and gracefully, with dignity in execution.”
6. The law of effective communication. Provides the ability to establish, maintain and strengthen contact with the audience (interlocutor), to win their sympathy, attention, and interest. To do this, you need to manage your own behavior, manage the behavior of the audience, and adjust, if necessary, the meeting plan.
7. System-analytical law. Assumes the ability to analyze the results obtained.
The conceptual law is fundamental, since the success of communication largely depends on the ability to analyze a situation and make a decision; the laws of audience modeling, strategic, tactical, verbal expression, effective communication “work” on the first law. Knowing them makes it possible to correctly implement the concept.
The significance of the system-analytical law is that it helps to assess the quality of the concept itself and analyze all stages of its implementation: find strong and weak links, correcting shortcomings.
Thus, the laws of rhetoric reflect the systematic nature of speech activity and following them determines communicative success.
We examined the basic principles and laws of modern rhetoric that are applicable in business communication. Principles differ from laws in their selectivity, but laws are universal in nature, that is, they are used in any type of communication.
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Civic art
Rhetoric was considered a civic art by some ancient philosophers. Aristotle and Isocrates were the first to see it in this light. They argued that the laws of speech and the rules of rhetoric are a fundamental part of the social life of every state. This science is capable of shaping a person's character. Aristotle believed that the art of persuasion could be used in public in three different ways:
- Political.
- Judicial.
- Ceremonial.
Rhetoric is a public art that has the power to shape opinion. Some ancients, including Plato, found fault with it. They argued that it could be used to deceive or manipulate, with negative consequences for civil society. The masses were unable to analyze or decide anything for themselves, so they could be swayed by the most persuasive speeches. Civil life could be controlled by those figures who knew how to make the best speech. This concern continues to this day.
LECTURE 2. Laws and principles of modern general rhetoric
For students studying on the basis of secondary vocational (legal) education.
The laws of general rhetoric have been developed and tested in thousands of thousands of communications - interpersonal and public - and can rightfully be called classical. So, from speech material, the speaker sews a dress according to the measurements of... the addressee. All four basic laws of modern general rhetoric are built on this truth of speech communication, which no longer requires proof.
Law one - the law of harmonizing dialogue states: effective verbal communication is possible only with dialogic interaction between participants in a speech situation
[21].
Let us turn to the essence of this law, relying on the rhetorical triad of the process of speech communication, which was formulated by Aristotle: “... Speech is composed of three elements: the speaker himself, the subject he is talking about, and the person he is addressing.”
[22]. These provisions were subsequently used to create all subsequent models of social speech communication. Thus, the famous 19th century rhetorician Y.V. Tolmachev in his book “Rules of Literature, Guiding from the First Beginnings to the Highest Perfections of Eloquence”, o[23]. The wonderful Russian philologist and philosopher M.M. Bakhtin wrote: “To live means to participate in dialogue: to question, to listen, to respond, to agree, etc. In this dialogue, a person participates with his whole life: with his eyes, lips, hands, soul, spirit, whole body, actions. He includes all of himself in the word, and this word enters into the dialogical fabric of Human life, into the world symposium.”[24]
So, the law of harmonizing dialogue instructs you and me to “awaken the listener’s own inner word”, to establish a harmonious and two-way relationship with the addressee.
However, in order to fulfill this requirement, it is necessary to know and comply with the principles of dialogization of speech behavior, namely:
1 – principle of attention to the addressee
2 – the principle of proximity of the content of speech to the interests of the addressee,
3 – the principle of concreteness of speech.
1. The principle of attention to the addressee . Rhetoric recommends, when thinking about a speech, to draw up a “ portrait of the listener (audience) ” . It is created as a result of answers to the following questions:
1) the social status of the listener or the social composition of the audience; social role of the interlocutor in relation to you (manager? teacher? friend? etc.)
2) audience size (number of people);
3) age;
4) the range of special interests of the addressee and a set of “forbidden topics”, personal characteristics of the interlocutor (character, education, upbringing...);
5) why and why did people gather (or is the interlocutor maintaining a dialogue)? What will they do as a result of the meeting, conference (meeting)?
6) How does your message relate to the personal, pressing interests and needs of the recipient?
7) what do they want to get from you as a speaker (interlocutor)? What can you offer them? Perhaps what is needed is not so much information as support or strengthening a sense of unity?
How will they use the information they receive from you? When? How?
Such an analysis of the audience will help to think through the course of the conversation, to dialogize even a monologue speech in public speaking (using, for example, rhetorical questions, appeals to listeners).
2. The principle of proximity of the content of speech to the interests and life of the addressee is built on the immutable basis that a person by nature experiences more acutely what concerns him personally, what is close to him. Therefore, rhetoric recommends focusing the listener’s attention on his own interests throughout the entire communication.
3. The principle of specificity. Specificity helps to visually perceive the sounding word, which is very important for understanding and memorization. Concreteness is achieved by the communicative qualities of speech: accuracy, clarity, expressiveness (imagery), as well as the presence of examples in speech.
The second law of general rhetoric - the law of advancement and orientation of the addressee - requires that the listener, with the help of the speaker, be oriented “in the space” of speech and that he feels that, together with the speaker, he is moving towards the goal
. This is achieved, first of all, by a clear structural and compositional construction of the speech itself, each of its periods, each phrase.
The third law of rhetoric - the law of emotionality - requires
“
so that the speaker not only thinks, not only creates his speech with his mind, but also feels, experiences emotionally what he is reporting or talking about
” [25]. Of course, when observing this law, the speaker’s direct life experience is important, but mastery of means of expression, style, and voice also play a big role.
The fourth law of rhetoric is the law of pleasure. Speech is then and therefore effective when it gives pleasure to the listener (interlocutor).
How to make verbal communication pleasant? There are three main postulates here: interest in the subject of speech, respect for the interlocutor, and culture of communication.
Of course, all the laws of general rhetoric are interconnected (like the three main categories - ethos, logos, pathos).
APPENDIX 2.
Seminar (practical) lesson 1.
Early school
Over the centuries, the study and teaching of the laws and rules of rhetoric have been adapted to the specific requirements of time and place. It suited a variety of uses, from architecture to literature. Learning originated in the school of philosophers known as the Sophists around 600 BC. e. Demosthenes and Lysias became the main orators during this period, and Isocrates and Gorgias became outstanding teachers. Rhetorical education is built on the four laws of rhetoric:
Modern teaching continues to refer to these laws in discussions of the classical art of persuasion.
Laws of private rhetoric
Certain rhetorical spheres have their own laws.
Such laws are studied in academic, judicial oratory and political rhetoric.
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School of the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, the laws of rhetoric were taught in universities as one of the three original liberal subjects, along with logic and grammar. With the rise of European monarchs in subsequent centuries, it passed into court and religious applications. Augustine had a strong influence on Christian rhetoric during this time, advocating its use in the church.
After the fall of the Roman Republic, poetry became a tool for rhetorical training. Writing was considered the main form through which state and church affairs were conducted. The study of verbal arts has been in decline for several centuries. This was followed by a gradual increase in formal education, culminating in the rise of medieval universities. Rhetorical writings of the late Middle Ages include those of Saint Thomas Aquinas and Matthew of Vendôme.
Late school
In the 16th century, education in the field of rhetoric was more restrained. Influential scholars such as Ramus believed that the process of invention and organization should be elevated to the realm of philosophy.
In the 18th century, the art of persuasion began to play a more serious role in social life. This led to the emergence of a new education system. “Schools of oratory” began to emerge. In them, women analyzed works of classical literature and discussed pronunciation tactics.
With the rise of democratic institutions at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. the study of the subject has experienced a renaissance. Scottish writer and theorist Hugh Blair became a true supporter and leader of the new movement. In his work “Lectures on Rhetoric and Fiction,” he promotes the ability to persuade as a resource for social success.
Throughout the twentieth century, the discipline developed as a concentrated field of study, with the creation of courses in rhetoric in many educational institutions.
Laws
The Four Laws of Rhetoric, discovered by Aristotle, serve as a guide to creating persuasive arguments and messages. This:
- the process of developing and arranging arguments (invention);
- choosing how to present your speech (style);
- the process of learning words and persuasive messages (memory);
- pronunciation, gestures, tempo and tone (delivery).
There is an intellectual debate going on in this area. Some argue that Aristotle considers rhetoric to be the art of persuasion. Others believe that it involves the art of judgment.
One of Aristotle's most famous doctrines was the idea of "general themes." The term most often referred to "argumentation loci" (a list of modes of reasoning and categories of thought) that a speaker could use to generate arguments or evidence. Themes were an ingenious tool designed to help categorize and better apply commonly used arguments.
Laws of rhetoric
Law is a category that reflects essential, necessary and recurring connections between phenomena of reality. Laws, as a rule, are objective in nature. Any purposeful activity of people is based on knowledge and practical use of laws and analysis of the conditions and forms of their manifestation. By studying the nature and conditions of laws, people can use them to their advantage. Any area of scientific knowledge develops its own specific laws, the power of which is manifested in a certain, narrower sphere of reality. Rhetoric as a sphere of humanitarian knowledge formulates laws that reflect the connections between such phenomena as society and speech, relationships within the concepts of “speaker - audience” (“addresser - addressee”). Let us consider the most general laws that reflect the relationships of communicants in the process of communication and communication itself in human life. The content and essence of rhetoric and its main categories allows us to formulate the following laws.
It is necessary to always remember that speech and communication are built according to the law of dialogue, when all participants in communication are in a position of interaction, are subjects of verbal communication, which ensures joint reflection on the problem under discussion, a joint search for the truth.
An interesting and productive approach to defining the laws of modern rhetoric, proposed by A.K. Michalska[3]. She formulates four laws of rhetoric, the main of which is the law of harmonizing dialogue. The implementation of this law presupposes:
— dialogical interaction of participants in communication, involving the audience in dialogue, which is manifested in the desire to “question, listen, respond, agree, etc.” (M.M. Bakhtin);
—establishment of harmonious and bilateral relations with the addressee.
Rhetoric has developed principles of speech behavior aimed at dialogizing verbal communication in order to obtain a lively and active response from the listener (reader) to the speech of the speaker (the word of the writer). These principles will be discussed in the relevant sections of the manual.
The second law of modern rhetoric is the law of promotion and orientation of the addressee. The essence of this law is that the author of the speech must help the listener (reader) navigate the space of speech and overcome the difficulties associated with its perception.
To implement this law it is necessary:
- create in the listener a feeling of movement in the space of speech;
—inform the addressee about the nature of the “path”, about its surprises and obstacles;
- determine, as you move through the content of speech, those positions that have already been achieved and which, to some extent, help prepare for the next stage on the path to understanding the meaning of speech.
The law of advancement and orientation of the addressee is manifested primarily in the general structure of speech, each component of which performs its own function in organizing the movement of communicants in the space of speech.
The structure should be clear to both the author and the audience. Clarity of structure is manifested in the composition of each part of speech, in skillful transitions from one part of speech to another, in the formulation of intermediate and final conclusions. Such semantic milestones in this text are: the title, which indicates what will be discussed in the text; a means of communication and logical transition from one thought to another - cohesion.
A major role in the implementation of this law is played by the execution (pronunciation) of speech: unnecessary pauses, the inability to highlight significant semantic blocks with the voice (correct intonation), and regulate the tempo of speech - all this interferes with movement and tires the listener.
The third law of modern rhetoric is the law of emotional speech. To understand the essence of this law, think about the words of N.F. Koshansky: “Eloquence always has three characteristics: strength of feeling, persuasiveness and desire for the common good”[4].
Let us pay attention to the expression “strength of feelings”. N.F. Koshansky defines this property as “eloquence of the heart,” which manifests itself in a living sense of truth, in the author’s passion for what he is discussing, in the ability to infect communication partners with his feelings, to captivate them with him.
The persuasiveness of N.F.’s speech Koshansky understands it as the eloquence of the mind, which manifests itself in the strength, clarity and “pleasantness” of convictions and which allows - even “against the will and aspirations” - to agree with the thoughts of the author.
“If the eloquence of the mind is combined with the eloquence of the heart, then there is almost no strength to resist them,” says N.F. Koshansky. To achieve emotionality in speech, you need to consciously and purposefully use expressive means of language, rhetorical tropes and figures (this will be discussed in detail in the relevant sections of the manual).
The fourth law of modern rhetoric A.K. Michalska formulates it as the law of pleasure.
For speech to be effective and efficient, it must please the listeners (readers). Pleasure must be understood in the broad sense of the word, as the joy of communication in any, even tragic, situations. Pleasure in this meaning is manifested not only in situations of a humorous concert, a cheerful feast, reading books about funny adventures, etc.
Thus, the law of pleasure means that the speaker sets himself the goal of bringing joy to the listener and making communication pleasant. What makes communication pleasant? What kind of speech is pleasant to listen to? You listen to pleasant speech easily and with pleasure. And for this it needs to be made clear, expressive, and not boring. For this purpose, it is necessary to use such techniques as involving the listener “in the game,” alternating difficult and easy material to present, variety of speech (changing the tempo of speech, using humor in the content of even the most serious message, using a variety of intonation patterns and patterns).
This means that the author of the speech must be able to use such figures as paradox, pun, riddle (“game pieces” of speech), humor in its various manifestations (anecdote, joke, story, quote, aphorism).
The laws of pleasure are associated with the hedonic function of speech, which manifests itself in its intrinsic value - it is speech as such that serves as a source of pleasure. Remember that a person often seeks to communicate with someone because it will give him pleasure (chatter, heart-to-heart talk, friendly conversation, entertaining conversation). Likewise, when preparing a speech, you need to think about how to make it easy to understand, pleasant for listeners (readers), bringing joy to both yourself (as the author) and your communication partners[5].
We agree with M.N. Mikhalkin that “the laws of rhetoric reflect the connection of speech with social cultural values, requirements formulated in society, determine the conditions for creating effective, efficient speech that contribute to the harmonization of relations between people”[6].
Of course, it is necessary for a holistic understanding of rhetoric as an academic subject to be familiar with such a category of rhetoric as the rhetorical canon.
Analysis methods
The laws of rhetoric can be analyzed by various methods and theories. One of them is criticism. This is not the scientific method. It involves subjective methods of argumentation. Critics use a variety of means when examining a particular rhetorical artifact, and some even develop their own unique methodology. Modern criticism examines the relationship between text and context. In determining the persuasiveness of a text, one can examine its relationship to audience, purpose, ethics, argumentation, evidence, layout, delivery, and style.
Another method is analytics. The object of rhetorical analysis is usually discourse. Therefore, it is very similar to discourse analysis. The goal of rhetorical analysis is not simply to describe the statements and arguments put forward by the speaker, but to identify specific semiotic strategies. Once analysts discover the use of language, they move on to questions:
- How it works?
- What impact does it have on the audience?
- How does this effect provide more clues about the speaker's goals?
Four laws of general rhetoric
All rhetorical parameters of speech must correspond to its purpose, providing the speaker with the necessary reaction from the addressee. The four laws of general rhetoric serve to solve this problem.
The first law is the law of harmonious dialogue between the speaker and the audience. For the speech goals of the speaker and the listeners to coincide, sufficient initial awareness of the listeners in this topic and their interest in it are necessary; general value orientation of the speaker and listeners; clarity, specificity and clarity of presentation. Moreover, it is necessary that any speech, even if it is a lengthy monologue, be dialogized. Dialogue (here not as an exchange of statements, but as an exchange of feelings, spiritual resonance) is the initial condition for achieving the proper degree of harmony (agreement) between the speaker and the audience.
There are several proven techniques for dialogizing a speaker’s speech actions. Let's list them:
1. Attention to the addressee. You need to study the listener, know his interests, problems, passions, “sore spots”, psychological makeup - everything that can affect the result of your speech.
2. Proximity of the topic to the listener. Not only the topic as a whole should be close to the addressee, but also the approach to it, the angle of view, as well as its particular aspects. The most important thing is the commonality of the evaluative position (unless your goal is to convince your listeners), the indisputability of examples and authorities. Otherwise, you risk being rejected by the audience. You also need to know the parameters by which the topic may be close to the recipient. Aristotle also noted that listeners are attentive to everything great and to what concerns them personally, to everything surprising and pleasant, therefore it is necessary to instill in the listeners that we are talking about such subjects. It should be added to this that if you skillfully present interesting material, then along with it the listener will willingly accept a certain portion of uninteresting material. This is where emotional inertia comes into play. As chefs joke, with a good sauce you can eat a shoe. A similar “seasoning” for boring, difficult-to-digest material is all sorts of jokes, anecdotes, proverbs and sayings, like the one above about the shoe.
3. Specificity and clarity. An image, an example, an illustration, colorful comparisons, models and analogies - even the most rigorous scientific lecture cannot do without them. Moreover, the more abstract the material is in nature, the more specific it needs to be learned.
The imagery of speech turns it into an internal film and auditory perception in its effectiveness approaches visual perception. With the help of speakers' generalizations, listeners quite easily move from a concrete level of perception to an abstract level.
The second law of general rhetoric is the law of orientation of the addressee in the structure of speech. It is important not only to give listeners the topic of speech and its plan (the latter is not observed in all speech genres), but also to periodically let them understand where the speaker and listeners are at the moment along the speech route. It is also important to highlight the structural parts of the speech with special phrases, intonation and gestures, so that the addressee can accurately calculate the expenditure of his energy for the rest of the speech. It’s better to finish a little earlier than the listener expects. Brevity is one of the undoubted advantages of a speaker.
The third law is the law of emotional speech. Emotional coloring in many (though not all) types of oral presentations is highly desirable, and in some it is simply necessary. Emotions are often the shortest route to listeners' attention.
The fourth law is the law of positive psychological attunement of listeners. A pleasant speaker is believed more than an unpleasant one. The same applies to his speech. This seems an axiom, but there is one significant caveat here: you cannot please the absolute
but to everyone, especially in an audience polarized in terms of values (a group of debaters, parliament, a rally, a judicial panel, etc.). To please one means to turn others against oneself. Of the four basic laws of general rhetoric, the first - the law of harmonious dialogue between the speaker and listeners - is the main one, and the other three reveal it and serve as means of its implementation.
Strategy
Rhetorical strategy is the author's attempt to persuade or inform his readers. Writers use it. There are various argumentation strategies that are used in writing. The most common of them:
- arguments from analogy;
- arguments from the absurd;
- mental exploration;
- conclusions for the purpose of better explanation.
